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broke out the liberal bourgeoisie who had initially been at the forefront of the burgeoning revolution were appalled by the violence and became willing to accept a compromise with the dutch 45 on a political level the belgians felt significantly under represented in the netherlands elected lower assembly and disliked the unpopular prince of orange the future william ii who was the representative of king william i in brussels the french speaking walloons also felt ostracised in a majority dutch speaking country there were also significant religious grievances felt by the majority catholic belgians the king assumed the protest would blow over he announced an amnesty for all revolutionaries except foreigners and the leaders when this did not succeed he sent in the army dutch forces were able to penetrate the schaerbeek gate into brussels but the advance was stalled in the parc de bruxelles under sniper fire royal troops elsewhere met determined resistance from revolutionaries at makeshift barricades it is estimated that there were no more than 1 700 revolutionaries described by the french ambassador as an undisciplined rabble 37 in brussels at the time faced with over 6 000 dutch troops however faced with strong opposition dutch troops were ordered out of the capital on the night of 26 september there were also battles around the country as revolutionaries clashed with dutch forces eight dutch warships bombarded antwerp following its capture by revolutionary forces portrait of leopold i who became the first king of the belgians in 1831 belgian independence was not allowed by the 1815 congress of vienna nevertheless the revolutionaries were regarded sympathetically by the major powers of europe in november 1830 the london conference of 1830 or belgian congress comprising delegates from great britain france russia prussia and austria ordered an armistice on november 4 at the end of november britain and france proposed no military intervention and the establishment of an independent kingdom of belgium which was accepted by the other three more conservative participants who had favored a military intervention 46 a protocol signed on 20 january 1831 stated that belgium would be formed of the regions that did not belong to the north in 1790 the new kingdom would be obliged to remain neutral in foreign affairs the british foreign secretary lord palmerston strongly backed the prince of orange as the new king the prince proved to be unacceptable to william i his father as well as to the french finally palmerston came up with his second choice leopold i of saxe coburg who was accepted by all 47 on july 21 1831 the first king of the belgians was inaugurated the date of his acceptance of the constitution 21 july 1831 is marked a national holiday 48 the liberal bourgeoisie hastily formed a provisional government under charles rogier to negotiate with the dutch officially declaring belgian independence on 4 october 1830 the belgian national congress was formed to draw up a constitution under the new constitution belgium became a sovereign independent state with a constitutional monarchy however the constitution severely limited voting rights to the french speaking haute bourgeoisie and the clergy in a country where french was not the majority language the catholic church was afforded a good deal of freedom from state intervention the state of conflict but not open warfare with the netherlands lasted another eight years but in 1839 the treaty of london was signed between the two countries and the five great powers of europe austria france prussia russia and the united kingdom by the treaty of 1839 the eastern part of luxembourg did not join belgium but remained a possession of the netherlands until different inheritance laws caused it to separate as an independent grand duchy the western french speaking part of luxembourg became the belgian province of that name belgium lost eastern limburg zeelandic flanders french flanders and eupen the netherlands retained the former two while french flanders remained in french possession eupen remained within the german confederation the five great powers pledged to protect belgium s neutrality in the future 49 in 1914 the violation of belgium s neutrality would be the stated casus belli of britain s entry into world war i 50 independence to world war i edit main article belgium in the long nineteenth century industrial revolution edit see also industrial revolution belgium history of wallonia industry and sillon industriel painting of steel production in ougrée by constantin meunier 1885 most of society was highly traditional especially in rural areas and the quality of education was low 51 nevertheless belgium was the second country after britain in which the industrial revolution took place it developed into an open economy focused on industrial exports with strong ties between the banking sector and industry 52 industrialization took place in wallonia starting in the mid 1820s and especially after 1830 the availability of cheap coal was a main factor that attracted entrepreneurs coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around liège and charleroi the leader was a transplanted englishman john cockerill his factories at seraing integrated all stages of production from engineering to the supply of raw materials as early as 1825 53 industry spread through the sillon industriel industrial district haine sambre and meuse valleys 54 by 1830 when iron became important the belgian coal industry had been long established and used steam engines for pumping coal was sold to local mills and railways as well as to france and prussia the textile industry based on cotton and flax employed about half of the industrial workforce for much of the industrial period ghent was the premier industrial city in belgium until the 1880s when the center of growth moved to liège with its steel industry 55 wallonia had rich coalfields over much of its area deep mines were not required at first so there were a large number of small operations there was a complex legal system for concessions often multiple layers had different owners entrepreneurs started going deeper and deeper thanks to the innovation of steam pumping in 1790 the maximum depth of mines was 220 meters by 1856 the average depth in the area west of mons was 361 and in 1866 some pits had reached down 700 and 900 meters one was 1 065 meters deep probably the deepest coal mine in europe at this time gas explosions were a serious problem and belgium had high fatality rates by the late 19th century the seams were becoming exhausted and the steel industry was importing some coal from the ruhr 56 cheap and readily available coal attracted firms producing metals and glass both of which required considerable amounts of coal and so regions around coal fields became highly industrialised the sillon industriel and in particular the pays noir around charleroi were the centre of the steel industry until the second world war railways edit the first belgian produced steam locomotive the belgian le belge built in 1835 main article history of rail transport in belgium the nation provided an ideal model for showing the value of the railways for speeding the industrial revolution after 1830 the new nation decided to stimulate industry it funded a simple cross shaped system that connected the major cities ports and mining areas and linked to neighboring countries belgium thus became the railway center of the region the system was very soundly built along british lines so that profits and wages were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place léopold i went on to build the first railway in continental europe in 1835 between brussels and mechelen 57 the development of smaller railways in belgium notably the liège jemappes line was launched by tendering contracts to private companies which became the model for the extension of small local railways all over the low countries 58 by the 1900s belgium was a major exporter of trams and other rail components exporting vast quantities of railway materials in south america 3 800 kilometers of track were owned by belgian firms with a further 1 500 kilometers in china 58 one belgian entrepreneur édouard empain known as the tramway king built many public transport systems across the world including the paris métro 59 other important businesses included cockerill sambre steel the chemical factories of ernest solvay and the firearms maker fabrique nationale de herstal liberalism and catholicism edit see also liberalism in belgium and first school war before the arrival of the socialists in the 1890s the nation was polarised between the conservative catholic party and the secular liberal party the liberals were anticlerical and wanted to reduce the power of the church the conflict came to a head during the first school war of 1879 1884 as liberal attempts to introduce a greater level of secularism in primary education were beaten back by outraged catholics the school war ushered in a period of catholic party dominance in belgian politics that lasted almost unbroken until 1917 60 religious conflict also extended to university education where secular universities like the free university of brussels competed with catholic universities like the catholic university of leuven linguistic conflict edit the majority of those in the north of the country spoke dutch and other low franconian languages while those in the south spoke langues d oïl such as french walloon and picard french became the official language of government after the separation from the netherlands in 1830 and belgian cultural life was especially dominated by the french influence 61 62 reinforced by economic domination of the industrial south flemish was reduced to the tongue of a second class culture 63 parts of the flemish population reacted against this this was partly due to a sense of growing flemish identity flemish victories like the battle of the golden spurs in 1302 were celebrated and a flemish cultural movement led by figures like hendrik conscience was born about the same time a walloon movement emerged led by jules destrée and based on loyalty to the french language universal suffrage meant the francophones were a political minority so the walloon movement concentrated on protecting french where it had a majority and did not contest the expanded use of dutch in flemish areas 64 the flemish goal of linguistic equality especially in schools and courts was finally achieved by a series of laws in the 1920s and 1930s dutch became the language of government education and the courts in the northern provinces of east and west flanders antwerp limburg and eastern brabant french remained the official language in wallonia brussels which had seen a major language shift to french became an officially bilingual region meanwhile a small separatist flemish movement had emerged the germans had supported it during the war and in the 1930s it turned fascist in the second world war it collaborated with the nazis 65 foreign relations and military policy edit see also belgium and the franco prussian war in the mid 1860s during the mexican adventure around 1 500 belgian soldiers joined the belgian expeditionary corps better known as the belgian legion to fight for emperor maximilian i whose wife charlotte was the daughter of leopold i of belgium 66 belgium was not a belligerent in the franco prussian war 1870 71 but the proximity of the war led to the mobilisation of the army 67 after the conflict there was talk of modernising the military the system of remplacement whereby wealthy belgians conscripted into the military could pay for a replacement was abolished and an improved system of conscription implemented these reforms led by d anethan under pressure from leopold ii divided belgian politics the catholics united with the liberals under frère orban to oppose them and the reforms were finally defeated when d anethan s government fell during an unrelated scandal 68 eventually the military was reformed the 1909 system instituted compulsory military service of eight years on active duty and five years in the reserves this swelled the size of the belgian army to over 100 000 well trained men 50 construction of a chain of forts along the border was intensified and let to a series of very modern fortifications including the so called national redoubt at antwerp at the fortified positions of liège and namur many of them designed by the belgian fortress architect henri alexis brialmont rise of the socialist party and the trade unions edit see also belgian labour party and belgian general strikes the economy was stagnant during the long depression of 1873 1895 as prices and wages fell and labour unrest grew 69 the belgian workers party was founded in 1885 in brussels it issued the charter of quaregnon in 1894 calling for an end to capitalism and a thorough reorganization of society during the late 19th century general strikes became an established aspect of the political process between 1892 and 1961 there were 20 major strikes including 7 general strikes many of these had overtly political motives like the 1893 general strike that helped achieve universal male suffrage on several occasions belgian general strikes escalated into violence in 1893 soldiers fired on the striking crowd killing several karl marx wrote there exists but one country in the civilised world where every strike is eagerly and joyously turned into a pretext for the official massacre of the working class that country of single blessedness is belgium 70 nevertheless belgium created a welfare net particularly early thanks in part to the trade unions sickness compensation was established in 1894 voluntary old age insurance in 1900 and unemployment insurance in 1907 achieving good coverage nationwide much more quickly than its neighbours 71 belgium also witnessed a rise in the number of co operatives with 1200 in existence by 1910 with nearly 200 000 members 72 catholic governments and social policy edit various reforms were introduced under the catholic governments that led belgium from the late nineteenth century onwards in 1887 the system of paying workers in kind and in pubs was outlawed and joint industrial and labour councils were established in 1889 labour law councils were reformed with employers facing increasing working class representation that same year legislation on social housing and women s and child labour was reformed in 1900 the first law on old age pensions was approved while a 1903 law on industrial accidents stipulated it was no longer up to the worker to prove his innocence from 1900 onwards catholic governments began subsidising unemployment funds health services and savings banks mandatory sunday rest was approved in 1905 while other reforms were carried out such as reduced working hours for miners the outlawing of nig...
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