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in hell was christina johansdotter died 1740 she was a swedish murderer who killed a child in stockholm with the sole purpose of being executed she is an example of those who seek suicide through execution by committing a murder it was a common act frequently targeting young children or infants as they were believed to be free from sin meaning they would go straight to heaven 201 although mainstream christian denominations including lutherans view the murder of an innocent as being condemned in the fifth commandment the suicidal members of lutheran churches who deliberately killed children with the intent of getting executed were usually well aware of christian doctrine against murder and planned to repent and seek forgiveness of their sins afterwards for example in 18th century denmark up until the year 1767 murderers were given the opportunity to repent of their sins before they were executed either way in 1767 religiously motivated suicidal murders ceased in denmark with the abolishment of the death penalty 202 evolutionary psychology has proposed several theories for different forms of infanticide infanticide by stepfathers as well as child abuse in general by stepfathers has been explained by spending resources on not genetically related children reducing reproductive success see the cinderella effect and infanticide zoology infanticide is one of the few forms of violence more often done by women than men and this has been explained as since women generally have a greater parental investment than men spending resources on an unfit child would decrease the mother s inclusive fitness 183 ethics edit most people today hold that infants have the same moral status as older humans making infanticide essentially always wrong in the same way that killing older persons typically is 203 some have challenged this view philosopher peter singer known for a philosophy called personism argues that newborns lack the essential characteristics of personhood rationality autonomy and self consciousness 204 and therefore killing a newborn baby is never equivalent to killing a person that is a being who wants to go on living 205 some medical ethicists have argued for parents to be allowed to kill their newborn babies because they are not actual persons they have proposed to call this after birth abortion 206 some authors warn that it is hard to defend consistently and credibly a position that rejects infanticide yet accepts the abortion of viable fetuses and the killing of higher animals such as chimpanzees 207 ethicists who consider abortion permissible but reject infanticide often argue from differences in the moral status of fetuses and newborns one such argument is that birth imposes parental responsibilities on the parents that do not exist before birth 208 another argument is that killing someone violates their bodily rights and that persons have such rights from the moment of birth but not before 209 current law edit australia edit in new south wales infanticide is defined in section 22a 1 of the crimes act 1900 nsw as follows 210 where a woman by any willful act or omission causes the death of her child being a child under the age of twelve months but at the time of the act or omission the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation consequent upon the birth of the child then notwithstanding that the circumstances were such that but for this section the offense would have amounted to murder she shall be guilty of infanticide and may for such offense be dealt with and punished as if she had been guilty of the offense of manslaughter of such child because infanticide is punishable as manslaughter as per s24 211 the maximum penalty for this offence is therefore 25 years imprisonment in victoria infanticide is defined by section 6 of the crimes act of 1958 with a maximum penalty of five years 212 new zealand edit in new zealand infanticide is provided for by section 178 of the crimes act 1961 which states where a woman causes the death of any child of hers under the age of 10 years in a manner that amounts to culpable homicide and where at the time of the offence the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to that or any other child or by reason of the effect of lactation or by reason of any disorder consequent upon childbirth or lactation to such an extent that she should not be held fully responsible she is guilty of infanticide and not of murder or manslaughter and is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years 213 canada edit in canada infanticide is a specific offence under section 237 of the criminal code it is defined as a form of culpable homicide which is neither murder nor manslaughter and occurs when a female person by a wilful act or omission causes the death of her newly born child defined as a child under one year of age if at the time of the act or omission she is not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth to the child and by reason thereof or of the effect of lactation consequent on the birth of the child her mind is then disturbed 214 infanticide is also a defence to murder in that a person accused of murder who successfully presents the defence is entitled to be convicted of infanticide rather than murder 215 216 the maximum sentence for infanticide is five years imprisonment by contrast the maximum sentence for manslaughter is life and the mandatory sentence for murder is life 214 the offence derives from an offence created in english law in 1922 which aimed to address the issue of judges and juries who were reluctant to return verdicts of murder against women and girls who killed their newborns out of poverty depression the shame of illegitimacy or otherwise desperate circumstances since the mandatory sentence was death even though in those circumstances the death penalty was likely not to be carried out with infanticide as a separate offence with a lesser penalty convictions were more likely the offence of infanticide was created in canada in 1948 215 there is ongoing debate in the canadian legal and political fields about whether section 237 of the criminal code should be amended or abolished altogether 217 denmark edit article 238 of the danish penal code covers infanticide stating a mother who kills her child during or immediately after birth and it must be assumed that she acted out of necessity out of fear of disgrace or under the influence of a weakness confusion or bewilderment brought on by the birth is punished with imprisonment for up to 4 years 218 england and wales edit in england and wales the infanticide act 1938 describes the offence of infanticide as one which would otherwise amount to murder by their mother if the victim was older than 12 months and the mother did not have an imbalance of mind due to the effects of childbirth or lactation where a mother who has killed such an infant has been charged with murder rather than infanticide s 1 3 of the act confirms that a jury has the power to find alternative verdicts of manslaughter in english law or guilty but insane the netherlands edit main article groningen protocol infanticide is illegal in the netherlands although the maximum sentence is lower than for homicide the groningen protocol regulates euthanasia for infants who are believed to suffer hopelessly and unbearably under strict conditions 219 poland edit article 149 of the penal code of poland stipulates that a mother who kills her child in labour while under the influence of the course of the delivery is liable to imprisonment for between three months and five years 220 romania edit article 200 of the penal code of romania stipulates that the killing of a newborn during the first 24 hours by the mother who is in a state of mental distress shall be punished with imprisonment of one to five years 221 the previous romanian penal code also defined infanticide pruncucidere as a distinct criminal offense providing for punishment of two to seven years imprisonment 222 recognizing the fact that a mother s judgment may be impaired immediately after birth united states edit further information born alive infants protection act and born alive laws in the united states while legislation regarding infanticide in some countries focuses on rehabilitation believing that treatment and education will prevent repetitive action the united states remains focused on delivering punishment one justification for punishment is the difficulty of implementing rehabilitation services with an overcrowded prison system the united states can not provide the necessary treatment and services 223 state legislation edit in 2009 texas state representative jessica farrar proposed legislation that would define infanticide as a distinct and lesser crime than homicide 224 under the terms of the proposed legislation if jurors concluded that a mother s judgment was impaired as a result of the effects of giving birth or the effects of lactation following the birth they would be allowed to convict her of the crime of infanticide rather than murder 225 the maximum penalty for infanticide would be two years in prison 225 farrar s introduction of this bill prompted liberal bioethics scholar jacob m appel to call her the bravest politician in america 225 federal legislation edit the mothers act m oms o pportunity t o access h ealth e ducation r esearch and s upport precipitated by the death of a chicago woman with postpartum psychosis was introduced in 2009 the act was ultimately incorporated into the patient protection and affordable care act which passed in 2010 the act requires screening for postpartum mood disorders at any time of the adult lifespan as well as expands research on postpartum depression provisions of the act also authorize grants to support clinical services for women who have or are at risk for postpartum psychosis 226 wider effects edit surviving children edit in addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children 16 261 62 conversely studying societies that practice infanticide géza róheim reported that even infanticidal mothers in new guinea who ate a child did not affect the personality development of the surviving children that these are good mothers who eat their own children 227 harris and divale s work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are however extensive negative effects societal edit for female infanticide mothers who keep giving birth to daughters could face divorce or violence skewed sex ratio with lack of available women to marry leads to violence such as bride kidnapping 179 prevention edit sex education and birth control edit since infanticide especially neonaticide is often a response to an unwanted birth 169 preventing unwanted pregnancies through improved sex education and increased contraceptive access are advocated as ways of preventing infanticide 228 increased use of contraceptives and access to safe legal abortions 20 171 122 23 have greatly reduced neonaticide in many developed nations in pakistan advocates of legalizing abortion say it would reduce infanticide and save mothers from potentially fatal back street terminations 166 psychiatric intervention edit cases of infanticide have also garnered increasing attention and interest from advocates for the mentally ill as well as organizations dedicated to postpartum disorders following the trial of andrea yates a mother from the united states who garnered national attention for drowning her 5 children representatives from organizations such as the postpartum support international and the marcé society for treatment and prevention of postpartum disorders began requesting clarification of diagnostic criteria for postpartum disorders and improved guidelines for treatments while accounts of postpartum psychosis have dated back over 2 000 years ago perinatal mental illness is still largely under diagnosed despite postpartum psychosis affecting 1 to 2 per 1000 women 229 230 screening for psychiatric disorders or risk factors and providing treatment or assistance to those at risk may help prevent infanticide 231 while studies on the treatment of postpartum psychosis are scarce a number of case and cohort studies have found evidence describing the effectiveness of lithium monotherapy for both acute and maintenance treatment of postpartum psychosis with the majority of patients achieving complete remission adjunctive treatments include electroconvulsive therapy antipsychotic medication or benzodiazepines electroconvulsive therapy in particular is the primary treatment for patients with catatonia severe agitation and difficulties eating or drinking antidepressants should be avoided throughout the acute treatment of postpartum psychosis due to risk of worsening mood instability 232 though screening and treatment may help prevent infanticide in the developed world significant proportions of neonaticides that are detected occur in young women who deny their pregnancy and avoid outside contacts many of whom may have limited contact with these health care services 169 safe surrender edit in some areas baby hatches or safe surrender sites safe places for a mother to anonymously leave an infant are offered in part to reduce the rate of infanticide in other places like the united states safe haven laws allow mothers to anonymously give infants to designated officials they are frequently located at hospitals and police and fire stations additionally some countries in europe have the laws of anonymous birth and confidential birth that allow mothers to give up an infant after birth in anonymous birth the mother does not attach her name to the birth certificate in confidential birth the mother registers her name and information but the document containing her name is sealed until the child comes to age typically such babies are put up for adoption or cared for in orphanages 233 employment edit granting women employment raises their status and autonomy having a gainful employment can raise the perceived worth of women this can lead to an increase in the number of women getting an education and a decrease in the number of female infanticide as a result the infant mortality rate will decrease and economic development will increase 234 in animals edit main article infanticide zoology the hanuman langurs are among the species where infanticide occurs 235 the practice has been observed in many other species of the animal kingdom since it was first seriously studied by yukimaru sugiyama 235 these include from microscopic rotifers and insects ...
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