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vidual ownership of property and economic liberalism the ideological belief in organizing the economy on individualist lines such that the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals and not by collective institutions or organizations 30 laissez faire free market ideologies including classical liberalism neoliberalism and right libertarianism are formed around the idea that social inequality is a natural feature of societies is therefore inevitable and in some philosophies even desirable wealth inequality in the united states increased from 1989 to 2013 31 inequality provides for differing goods and services to be offered on the open market spurs ambition and provides incentive for industriousness and innovation at the other end of the continuum collectivists place little to no trust in free market economic systems noting widespread lack of access among specific groups or classes of individuals to the costs of entry to the market widespread inequalities often lead to conflict and dissatisfaction with the current social order such ideologies include fabianism and socialism inequality in these ideologies must be reduced eliminated or kept under tight control through collective regulation 29 furthermore in some views inequality is natural but shouldn t affect certain fundamental human needs human rights and the initial chances given to individuals e g by education 32 the economic grievance thesis argues that economic factors such as deindustrialisation economic liberalisation and deregulation are causing the formation of a left behind precariat with low job security high inequality and wage stagnation who then support populism 33 34 some theories only focus on the effect of economic crises 35 or inequality 36 another objection for economic reasons is due to the globalization that is taking place in the world today in addition to criticism of the widening inequality caused by the elite the widening inequality among the general public caused by the influx of immigrants and other factors due to globalization is also a target of populist criticism the evidence of increasing economic disparity and volatility of family incomes is clear particularly in the united states as shown by the work of thomas piketty and others 37 38 39 commentators such as martin wolf emphasize the importance of economics 40 they warn that such trends increase resentment and make people susceptible to populist rhetoric evidence for this is mixed at the macro level political scientists report that xenophobia anti immigrant feeling and resentment towards out groups tend to be higher during difficult economic times 37 41 economic crises have been associated with gains by far right political parties 42 43 however there is little evidence at the micro or individual level to link individual economic grievances and populist support 37 33 populist politicians tend to put pressure on central bank independence 44 though the above discussion is limited to specific western ideologies similar thinking can be found historically in differing societies throughout the world while in general eastern societies tend toward collectivism elements of individualism and free market organization can be found in certain regions and historical eras classic chinese society in the han and tang dynasties for example while highly organized into tight hierarchies of horizontal inequality with a distinct power elite also had many elements of free trade among its various regions and subcultures 45 social mobility is the movement along social strata or hierarchies by individuals ethnic group or nations there is a change in literacy income distribution education and health status the movement can be vertical or horizontal vertical is the upward or downward movement along social strata which occurs due to change of jobs or marriage horizontal movement along levels that are equally ranked intra generational mobility is a social status change in a generation single lifetime for example a person moves from a junior staff in an organization to the senior management the absolute management movement is where a person gains better social status than their parents and this can be due to improved security economic development and better education system relative mobility is where some individual are expected to have higher social ranks than their parents 46 today there is belief held by some that social inequality often creates political conflict and growing consensus that political structures determine the solution for such conflicts under this line of thinking adequately designed social and political institutions are seen as ensuring the smooth functioning of economic markets such that there is political stability which improves the long term outlook enhances labour and capital productivity and so stimulates economic growth with higher economic growth net gains are positive across all levels and political reforms are easier to sustain this may explain why over time in more egalitarian societies fiscal performance is better stimulating greater accumulation of capital and higher growth 47 inequality and social class edit further information social class social connectedness to people of higher income levels is a strong predictor of upward income mobility 11 however data shows substantial social segregation correlating with economic income groups 11 an 1862 painting by vasily perov depicts impoverished people meeting a wealthy man street in camden new jersey which has evident urban decay socioeconomic status ses is a combined total measure of a person s work experience and of an individual s or family s economic and social position in relation to others based on income education and occupation the importance of this has included the different ways that sources have produced multiple effects on the interpretation of women s social classes and its used throughout society 48 it is often used as synonymous with social class a set of hierarchical social categories that indicate an individual s or household s relative position in a stratified matrix of social relationships social class is delineated by a number of variables some of which change across time and place for karl marx there exist two major social classes with significant inequality between the two the two are delineated by their relationship to the means of production in a given society those two classes are defined as the owners of the means of production and those who sell their labour to the owners of the means of production in capitalistic societies the two classifications represent the opposing social interests of its members capital gain for the capitalists and good wages for the labourers creating social conflict max weber uses social classes to examine wealth and status for him social class is strongly associated with prestige and privileges it may explain social reproduction the tendency of social classes to remain stable across generations maintaining most of their inequalities as well such inequalities include differences in income wealth access to education pension levels social status socioeconomic safety net 49 in general social class can be defined as a large category of similarly ranked people located in a hierarchy and distinguished from other large categories in the hierarchy by such traits as occupation education income and wealth 50 a map showing gini coefficients for wealth within countries for 2019 based on the report by credit suisse in modern western societies inequalities are often broadly classified into three major divisions of social class upper class middle class and lower class each of these classes can be further subdivided into smaller classes e g upper middle 51 members of different classes have varied access to financial resources which affects their placement in the social stratification system 52 class race and gender are forms of stratification that bring inequality and determines the difference in allocation of societal rewards occupation is the primary determinant of a person class since it affects their lifestyle opportunities culture and kind of people one associates with class based families include the lower class who are the poor in the society they have limited opportunities working class are those people in blue collar jobs and usually affects the economic level of a nation the middle classes are those who rely mostly on wives employment and depends on credits from the bank and medical coverage the upper middle class are professionals who are strong because of economic resources and supportive institutions 53 additionally the upper class usually are the wealthy families who have economic power due to accumulative wealth from families but not and not hard earned income social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of society about social class wealth political influence a society can be politically stratified based on authority and power economically stratified based on income level and wealth occupational stratification about one s occupation some roles for examples doctors engineers lawyers are highly ranked and thus they give orders while the rest receive the orders 54 there are three systems of social stratification which are the caste system estates system and class system castes system usually ascribed to children during birth whereby one receives the same stratification as of that of their parents the stratification may be superior or inferior and thus influences the occupation and the social roles assigned to a person estate system is a state or society where people in this state were required to work on their land to receive some services like military protection communities ranked according to the nobility of their lords the class system is about income inequality and socio political status people can move the classes when they increase their level of income or if they have authority people are expected to maximize their innate abilities and possessions social stratification characteristics include its universal social ancient it s in diverse forms and also consequential 55 the quantitative variables most often used as an indicator of social inequality are income and wealth in a given society the distribution of individual or household accumulation of wealth tells us more about variation in well being than does income alone 56 gross domestic product gdp especially per capita gdp is sometimes used to describe economic inequality at the international or global level a better measure at that level however is the gini coefficient a measure of statistical dispersion used to represent the distribution of a specific quantity such as income or wealth at a global level among a nation s residents or even within a metropolitan area 57 other widely used measures of economic inequality are the percentage of people living with under us 1 25 or 2 a day and the share of national income held by the wealthiest 10 of the population sometimes called the palma measure 58 meritocracy and social inequality edit many societies worldwide claim to be meritocracies that is their societies exclusively distribute resources on the basis of merit the term meritocracy was coined by michael young in his 1958 dystopian essay the rise of the meritocracy to demonstrate the social dysfunctions that he anticipated arising in societies where the elites believe that they are successful entirely on the basis of merit so the adoption of this term into english without negative connotations is ironic 59 young was concerned that the tripartite system of education being practised in the united kingdom at the time he wrote the essay considered merit to be intelligence plus effort its possessors identified at an early age and selected for appropriate intensive education and that the obsession with quantification test scoring and qualifications it supported would create an educated middle class elite at the expense of the education of the working class inevitably resulting in injustice and eventually revolution 60 in many cases social inequality is linked to racial and ethnic inequality gender inequality and other forms of social status and these forms can be related to corruption 4 the most common metric for comparing social inequality in different nations is the gini coefficient which measures the concentration of wealth and income in a nation from 0 evenly distributed wealth and income to 1 one person has all wealth and income two nations may have identical gini coefficients but dramatically different economic output and or quality of life so the gini coefficient must be contextualized for meaningful comparisons to be made 61 patterns of inequality in the economic world edit there are a number of socially defined characteristics of individuals that contribute to social status and therefore equality or inequality within a society when researchers use quantitative variables such as income or wealth to measure inequality on an examination of the data patterns are found that indicate these other social variables contribute to income or wealth as intervening variables significant inequalities in income and wealth are found when specific socially defined categories of people are compared among the most pervasive of these variables are sex gender race and ethnicity as they contribute to great factors in society as they form and limit many parts of the economy 62 this is not to say in societies wherein merit is considered to be the primary factor determining one s place or rank in the social order that merit has no effect on variations in income or wealth it is to say that these other socially defined characteristics can and often do intervene in the valuation of merit gender inequality edit main article gender inequality gender as a social inequality is whereby women and men are treated differently due to masculinity and femininity by dividing labor assigning roles and responsibilities and allocating social rewards sex and gender based prejudice and discrimination called sexism are major contributing factors to social inequality most societies even agricultural ones have some sexual division of labour and gender based division of labour tends to increase during industrialization 63 the emphasis on gender inequality is born out of the deepening division in the roles assigned to men and women particularly in the economic political and educational spheres women are underrepresented in political activities and decision making processes in most states in both the global north and global south 64 a woman and three men sitting in a conference meeting gender discrimination especially concerning the lower social status of women has been a topic of serious discussion not only within academic and activist communities but also by governmental agencies and international bodies such as the united nations these discussions seek to identify and remedy widespread institutionalized barriers to access for women in thei...