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ountry list of immigrant populations immigration country immigration policy forced displacement illegal immigration internal migration history and law alien asylum shopping border security citizenship crime deportation self deportation detention emigration externalization immigrant investor programs immigration law immigration tariff indefinite leave to remain migration diplomacy net migration rate list new pact on migration and asylum eu non refoulement permanent residency population transfer pushback refugee repatriation extradition residence permit return migration right of asylum right of return safe third country smuggling surveillance voluntary return social processes acculturation gap birth tourism anchor baby satellite babies economic effects expatriate human capital flight human migration immigrant assimilation immigrant generations immigrant invasion immigration consultant integration migration background persecution refugee crisis social exclusion student migration unreported employment visa fraud political theories civic nationalism ethnocentrism foot voting group cohesiveness multiculturalism nativism plurinationalism push and pull factors religious nationalism replacement migration causes chain migration economic migrant foreign worker global labor arbitrage war weaponized opposition and reform criticism of multiculturalism immigration reform opposition to immigration white genocide conspiracy theory v t e acculturation refers to the psychological social and cultural transformation that takes place through direct contact between two cultures wherein one or both engage in adapting to dominant cultural influences without compromising their essential distinctiveness 1 it occurs when an individual acquires adopts or adjusts to a new cultural environment as a result of being placed into another culture or when another culture is brought into contact 2 this balancing process can result in a mixed society with prevailing and blended features or with splintered cultural changes depending on the sociopolitical atmosphere individuals from other cultures work toward fitting into a more prevalent culture by selectively integrating aspects of the dominant culture such as its cultural traits and social norms while still holding onto their original cultural values and traditions 1 the impacts of acculturation are experienced differently at various levels by both the adoptees of the mainstream culture and the hosts of the source culture outcomes can include marginalization respectful coexistence destructive tensions integration and cultural evolution 3 levels and dynamics edit at a group level acculturation often results in changes to culture religious practices health care and other social institutions there are also significant ramifications on the food clothing and language of those becoming introduced to the overarching culture at the individual level the process of acculturation refers to the socialization process by which foreign born individuals blend the values customs norms cultural attitudes and behaviors of the overarching host culture this process has been linked to changes in daily behavior as well as numerous changes in psychological and physical well being as enculturation is used to describe the process of first culture learning acculturation can be thought of as second culture learning under natural circumstances which are common in daily life encountered today acculturation automatically takes a long time spanning several generations physical force can be seen in some instances of acculturation which can cause it to occur more rapidly but it is not a main component of the process more commonly the process occurs through constant pressure and consistent exposure to the more prevalent host culture scholars in different disciplines have developed more than 60 theories of acculturation though many lack academic rigour in their proposals 4 active academic focus on the concept of acculturation began in 1918 4 as it has been approached from the fields of psychology anthropology and sociology at different times numerous theories and definitions have emerged to describe elements of the acculturative process despite definitions and evidence that acculturation is a two way process of change theory and research have dealt mainly with the minorities adaptations and changes such as immigrants refugees and indigenous people in response to their contact with the dominant majority contemporary research has primarily focused on the various strategies of acculturation within societies the factors influencing the acculturation process and the individuals involved and the development of interventions aimed at facilitating smoother transitions historical approaches edit the history of western civilization and in particular the histories of europe and the united states are largely defined by patterns of acculturation one of the most notable forms of acculturation is imperialism the most common progenitor of direct cultural change although these cultural changes may seem simple the combined results are both robust and complex impacting both groups and individuals from the original culture and the host culture acculturation with dominance has been researched by sociologists anthropologists and historians virtually only mostly in a colonialism context due to the dispersal of western european people all over the world over the last five centuries 5 the first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in w i thomas and florian znaniecki s 1918 study the polish peasant in europe and america from studying polish immigrants in chicago they illustrated three forms of acculturation corresponding to three personality types bohemian adopting the host culture and abandoning their culture of origin philistine failing to adopt the host culture but preserving their culture of origin and creative type able to adapt to the host culture while preserving their culture of origin 6 in 1936 redfield linton and herskovits provided the first widely used definition of acculturation as those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups under this definition acculturation is to be distinguished from assimilation which is at times a phase of acculturation 7 long before efforts toward racial and cultural integration in the united states arose the common process was assimilation in 1964 milton gordon s book assimilation in american life outlined seven stages of the assimilative process setting the stage for literature on this topic later young yun kim authored a reiteration of gordon s work but argued cross cultural adaptation as a multi staged process kim s theory focused on the unitary nature of psychological and social processes and the reciprocal functional personal environment interdependence 8 although this view was the earliest to fuse micro psychological and macro social factors into an integrated theory it was clearly focused on assimilation rather than racial or ethnic integration in kim s approach assimilation is unilinear and the sojourner must conform to the majority group culture in order to be communicatively competent according to gudykunst and kim 2003 9 the cross cultural adaptation process involves a continuous interplay of deculturation and acculturation that brings about change in strangers in the direction of assimilation the highest degree of adaptation theoretically conceivable this view has been heavily criticized since the biological science definition of adaptation refers to the random mutation of new forms of life not the convergence of a monoculture kramer 2003 in opposition to gudykunst and kim s adaptive development eric m kramer developed his cultural fusion theory 2011 10 2010 11 2000a 12 1997a 11 13 2000a 12 14 2011 15 2012 16 maintaining clear conceptual distinctions between assimilation adaptation and integration according to kramer assimilation involves conformity to a pre existing form kramer s 2000a 2000b 2000c 2003 2009 2011 theory of cultural fusion which is based on systems theory and hermeneutics argues that it is impossible for a person to unlearn themselves and that by definition growth is not a zero sum process that requires the disillusion of one form for another to come into being but rather a process of learning new languages and cultural repertoires ways of thinking cooking playing working worshiping and so forth that is in kramer s view one does not need to unlearn a language to learn another language or unlearn who he or she is to learn new patterns of dancing cooking speaking etc kramer disagrees with gudykunst and kim 2003 in saying that this commingling of language and culture generates cognitive complexity or being able to switch between cultural repertoires in short kramer says that learning is expansion not unlearning conceptual models edit theory of dimensional accrual and dissociation edit although different acculturation models can be differentiated the most complete models take into account change occurring in both groups as well as among the members of these interacting groups 17 to understand acculturation at the group level one must first look at the nature of both cultures before coming into contact with one another a useful approach is eric kramer s 18 theory of dimensional accrual and dissociation dad two fundamental premises in kramer s dad theory are the concepts of hermeneutics and semiotics which infer that identity meaning communication and learning all depend on differences or variance according to this view total assimilation would result in a monoculture void of personal identity meaning and communication 19 kramer s dad theory also utilizes concepts from several scholars most notably jean gebser and lewis mumford to synthesize explanations of widely observed cultural expressions and differences kramer s theory identifies three communication styles idolic symbolic or signalic in order to explain cultural differences in this theory there is no single means of communication automatically better and no last word on intercultural conflict presented kramer presents three connected theories instead the theory dimensional accrual and dissociation the cultural fusion theory 20 and the cultural churning theory 21 for instance according to kramer s dad theory a statue of a god in an idolic community is god and stealing it is a highly punishable offense 22 for example many people in india believe that statues of the god ganesh to take such a statue god from its temple is more than theft it is blasphemy idolic reality involves strong emotional identification where a holy relic does not simply symbolize the sacred it is sacred by contrast a christian crucifix follows a symbolic nature where it represents a symbol of god lastly the signalic modality is far less emotional and increasingly dissociated kramer refers to changes in each culture due to acculturation as co evolution 23 kramer also addresses what he calls the qualities of out vectors which address the nature in which the former and new cultures make contact 24 kramer uses the phrase interaction potential to refer to differences in individual or group acculturative processes for instance the process of acculturation varies significantly in the case of individuals who were immigrating to the host nation as refugees or immigrants furthermore this process encompasses the importance of how hospitable the host society is to the newcomer how welcoming the host is toward accommodating and acquainting the newcomer and how their interaction affects the host and the newcomer fourfold models edit the four essential paradigm forms of acculturation the fourfold model is a bilinear model that categorizes acculturation strategies along two dimensions the first dimension concerns the retention or rejection of an individual s minority or native culture i e is it considered to be of value to maintain one s identity and characteristics whereas the second dimension concerns the adoption or rejection of the dominant group or host culture is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with the larger society from this four acculturation strategies emerge 25 assimilation occurs when individuals adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture over their original culture sometimes it is forced by governments separation occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin separation is often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves integration occurs when individuals can adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin integration leads to and is often synonymous with biculturalism marginalization occurs when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host culture studies suggest that individuals respective acculturation strategy can differ between their private and public life spheres 26 for instance an individual may reject the values and norms of the dominant culture in their private life separation whereas they might adapt to the dominant culture in public parts of their life i e integration or assimilation predictors of acculturation strategies edit the fourfold models used to describe individual attitudes of immigrants parallel models used to describe group expectations of the larger society and how groups should acculturate 27 in a melting pot society in which a harmonious and homogenous culture is promoted assimilation is the endorsed acculturation strategy in segregationist societies in which humans are separated into racial ethnic and or religious groups in daily life a separation acculturation strategy is endorsed in a multiculturalist society in which multiple cultures are accepted and appreciated individuals are encouraged to adopt an integrationist approach to acculturation in societies where cultural exclusion is promoted individuals often adopt marginalization strategies of acculturation attitudes towards acculturation and thus the range of acculturation strategies available have not been consistent over time for example for most of american history policies and attitudes have been based around established ethnic hierarchies with an expectation of one way assimilation for predominantly white european immigrants 28 although the notion of cultural pluralism has existed since the early 20th century the recognition and promotion of multiculturalism did not become prominent in america until the 1980s separatism can still be seen today in autonomous religious communities such as the amish and the hutterites direct environment also affects the availability advantage and choice of various acculturation strategies since immigrants settle in unequal segments of society immigrants to lower ranked economic and ethnic hierarchies may face restrict...