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uropean union classification of ammonia solutions is given in the table concentration by weight w w molarity concentration mass volume w v ghs pictograms h phrases 5 10 2 87 5 62 mol l 48 9 95 7 g l h314 10 25 5 62 13 29 mol l 95 7 226 3 g l h314 h335 h400 25 13 29 mol l 226 3 g l h314 h335 h400 h411 the ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract and experts warn that these solutions only be handled in a fume hood saturated 0 880 see properties solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather and experts also warn that the bottle be opened with care this is not usually a problem for 25 0 900 solutions experts warn that ammonia solutions not be mixed with halogens as toxic and or explosive products are formed experts also warn that prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with silver mercury or iodide salts can also lead to explosive products such mixtures are often formed in qualitative inorganic analysis and that it needs to be lightly acidified but not concentrated 6 w v before disposal once the test is completed laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia gas or liquid edit anhydrous ammonia is classified as toxic t and dangerous for the environment n the gas is flammable autoignition temperature 651 c and can form explosive mixtures with air 16 25 the permissible exposure limit pel in the united states is 50 ppm 35 mg m 3 while the idlh concentration is estimated at 300 ppm repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 50 ppm but desensitised individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100 ppm anhydrous ammonia corrodes copper and zinc containing alloys which makes brass fittings not appropriate for handling the gas liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics ammonia reacts violently with the halogens nitrogen triiodide a primary high explosive is formed when ammonia comes in contact with iodine ammonia causes the explosive polymerisation of ethylene oxide it also forms explosive fulminating compounds with compounds of gold silver mercury germanium or tellurium and with stibine violent reactions have also been reported with acetaldehyde hypochlorite solutions potassium ferricyanide and peroxides production edit this section is about industrial synthesis for synthesis in certain organisms see biosynthesis main article ammonia production year 0 30k 60k 90k 120k 150k 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 world production in thousands of tons of fixed nitrogen global ammonia production since 1950 fixed global ammonia production 1950 2020 expressed as fixed nitrogen in us tons 153 ammonia has one of the highest rates of production of any inorganic chemical production is sometimes expressed in terms of fixed nitrogen global production was estimated as being 160 million tonnes in 2020 147 tons of fixed nitrogen 154 china accounted for 26 5 of that followed by russia at 11 0 the united states at 9 5 and india at 8 3 154 before the start of world war i most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation 155 of nitrogenous vegetable and animal waste products including camel dung where it was distilled by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen in addition it was produced by the distillation of coal and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides 156 such as quicklime 31 2 nh 4 cl 2 cao cacl 2 ca oh 2 2 nh 3 g for small scale laboratory synthesis one can heat urea and calcium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide nh 2 2 co ca oh 2 caco 3 2 nh 3 haber bosch edit this section is an excerpt from haber process edit fritz haber 1918 the haber process 157 also called the haber bosch process is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia 158 159 it converts atmospheric nitrogen n 2 to ammonia nh 3 by a reaction with hydrogen h 2 using finely divided iron metal as a catalyst n 2 3 h 2 2 nh 3 δ h 298 k 92 28 kj per mole of n 2 displaystyle ce n2 3h2 2nh3 qquad delta h_ mathrm 298 k circ 92 28 text kj per mole of ce n2 this reaction is exothermic but disfavored in terms of entropy because four equivalents of reactant gases are converted into two equivalents of product gas however due to the extremely high kinetic barriers to bond cleavage high pressures and temperatures are needed to drive the reaction forward the haber process was first created by the german chemist fritz haber then developed after a few years by carl bosch the german chemists fritz haber and carl bosch developed the process in the first decade of the 20th century and its improved efficiency over existing methods such as the birkeland eyde and frank caro processes was a major advancement in the industrial production of ammonia 160 161 162 the haber process can be combined with steam reforming to produce ammonia with just three chemical inputs water natural gas and atmospheric nitrogen both haber and bosch were eventually awarded the nobel prize in chemistry haber in 1918 for ammonia synthesis specifically and bosch in 1931 for related contributions to high pressure chemistry electrochemical edit the electrochemical synthesis of ammonia involves the reductive formation of lithium nitride which can be protonated to ammonia given a proton source the first use of this chemistry was reported in 1930 where lithium solutions in ethanol were used to produce ammonia at pressures of up to 1000 bar with ethanol acting as the proton source 163 beyond simply mediating proton transfer to the nitrogen reduction reaction ethanol has been found to play a multifaceted role influencing electrolyte transformations and contributing to the formation of the solid electrolyte interphase which enhances overall reaction efficiency 164 165 in 1994 tsuneto et al used lithium electrodeposition in tetrahydrofuran to synthesize ammonia at more moderate pressures with reasonable faradaic efficiency 166 subsequent studies have further explored the ethanol tetrahydrofuran system for electrochemical ammonia synthesis 165 167 in 2020 a solvent agnostic gas diffusion electrode was shown to improve nitrogen transport to the reactive lithium nh 3 production rates of up to 30 5 nmol s cm 2 and faradaic efficiencies of up to 47 5 4 at ambient temperature and 1 bar pressure were achieved 168 in 2021 it was demonstrated that ethanol could be replaced with a tetraalkyl phosphonium salt 169 the study observed nh 3 production rates of 53 1 nmol s cm 2 at 69 1 faradaic efficiency experiments under 0 5 bar hydrogen and 19 5 bar nitrogen partial pressure at ambient temperature 169 technology based on this electrochemistry is being developed for commercial fertiliser and fuel production 170 171 in 2022 ammonia was produced via the lithium mediated process in a continuous flow electrolyzer also demonstrating the hydrogen gas as proton source the study synthesised ammonia at 61 1 faradaic efficiency at a current density of 6 ma cm 2 at 1 bar and room temperature 172 biochemistry and medicine edit main symptoms of hyperammonemia ammonia reaching toxic concentrations 173 ammonia is essential for life 174 for example it is required for the formation of amino acids and nucleic acids fundamental building blocks of life ammonia is however quite toxic nature thus uses carriers for ammonia within a cell glutamate serves this role in the bloodstream glutamine is a source of ammonia 175 ethanolamine required for cell membranes is the substrate for ethanolamine ammonia lyase which produces ammonia 176 h 2 nch 2 ch 2 oh nh 3 ch 3 cho ammonia is both a metabolic waste and a metabolic input throughout the biosphere it is an important source of nitrogen for living systems although atmospheric nitrogen abounds more than 75 few living creatures are capable of using atmospheric nitrogen in its diatomic form n 2 gas therefore nitrogen fixation is required for the synthesis of amino acids which are the building blocks of protein some plants rely on ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes incorporated into the soil by decaying matter others such as nitrogen fixing legumes benefit from symbiotic relationships with rhizobia bacteria that create ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen 177 in humans inhaling ammonia in high concentrations can be fatal exposure to ammonia can cause headaches edema impaired memory seizures and coma as it is neurotoxic in nature 178 biosynthesis edit see also diazotroph in certain organisms ammonia is produced from atmospheric nitrogen by enzymes called nitrogenases the overall process is called nitrogen fixation intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation the scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme which consists of an fe 7 mos 9 ensemble 179 ammonia is also a metabolic product of amino acid deamination catalysed by enzymes such as glutamate dehydrogenase 1 ammonia excretion is common in aquatic animals in humans it is quickly converted to urea by liver which is much less toxic particularly less basic this urea is a major component of the dry weight of urine most reptiles birds insects and snails excrete uric acid solely as nitrogenous waste physiology edit ammonia plays a role in both normal and abnormal animal physiology it is biosynthesised through normal amino acid metabolism and is toxic in high concentrations the liver converts ammonia to urea through a series of reactions known as the urea cycle liver dysfunction such as that seen in cirrhosis may lead to elevated amounts of ammonia in the blood hyperammonemia likewise defects in the enzymes responsible for the urea cycle such as ornithine transcarbamylase lead to hyperammonemia hyperammonemia contributes to the confusion and coma of hepatic encephalopathy as well as the neurological disease common in people with urea cycle defects and organic acidurias 180 ammonia is important for normal animal acid base balance after formation of ammonium from glutamine α ketoglutarate may be degraded to produce two bicarbonate ions which are then available as buffers for dietary acids ammonium is excreted in the urine resulting in net acid loss ammonia may itself diffuse across the renal tubules combine with a hydrogen ion and thus allow for further acid excretion 181 excretion edit main article excretion ammonium ions are a toxic waste product of metabolism in animals in fish and aquatic invertebrates it is excreted directly into the water in mammals sharks and amphibians it is converted in the urea cycle to urea which is less toxic and can be stored more efficiently in birds reptiles and terrestrial snails metabolic ammonium is converted into uric acid which is solid and can therefore be excreted with minimal water loss 182 extraterrestrial occurrence edit ammonia occurs in the atmospheres of the outer giant planets such as jupiter 0 026 ammonia saturn 0 012 ammonia and in the atmospheres and ices of uranus and neptune ammonia has been detected in the atmospheres of the giant planets jupiter saturn uranus and neptune along with other gases such as methane hydrogen and helium the interior of saturn may include frozen ammonia crystals 183 interstellar space edit ammonia was first detected in interstellar space in 1968 based on microwave emissions from the direction of the galactic core 184 this was the first polyatomic molecule to be so detected the sensitivity of the molecule to a broad range of excitations and the ease with which it can be observed in a number of regions has made ammonia one of the most important molecules for studies of molecular clouds 185 the relative intensity of the ammonia lines can be used to measure the temperature of the emitting medium the following isotopic species of ammonia have been detected nh 3 15 nh 3 nh 2 d nhd 2 and nd 3 the detection of triply deuterated ammonia was considered a surprise as deuterium is relatively scarce it is thought that the low temperature conditions allow this molecule to survive and accumulate 186 since its interstellar discovery nh 3 has proved to be an invaluable spectroscopic tool in the study of the interstellar medium with a large number of transitions sensitive to a wide range of excitation conditions nh 3 has been widely astronomically detected its detection has been reported in hundreds of journal articles listed below is a sample of journal articles that highlights the range of detectors that have been used to identify ammonia the study of interstellar ammonia has been important to a number of areas of research in the last few decades some of these are delineated below and primarily involve using ammonia as an interstellar thermometer interstellar formation mechanisms edit the interstellar abundance for ammonia has been measured for a variety of environments the nh 3 h 2 ratio has been estimated to range from 10 7 in small dark clouds 187 up to 10 5 in the dense core of the orion molecular cloud complex 188 although a total of 18 total production routes have been proposed 189 the principal formation mechanism for interstellar nh 3 is the reaction nh 4 e nh 3 h the rate constant k of this reaction depends on the temperature of the environment with a value of 5 2 10 6 displaystyle 5 2 times 10 6 at 10 k 190 the rate constant was calculated from the formula k a t 300 b displaystyle k a t 300 b for the primary formation reaction a 1 05 10 6 and b 0 47 assuming an nh 4 abundance of 3 10 7 displaystyle 3 times 10 7 and an electron abundance of 10 7 typical of molecular clouds the formation will proceed at a rate of 1 6 10 9 cm 3 s 1 in a molecular cloud of total density 10 5 cm 3 191 all other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between two and 13 orders of magnitude smaller making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant 192 as an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play the reaction h 2 nh 2 nh 3 h has a rate constant of 2 2 10 15 assuming h 2 densities of 10 5 and nh 2 h 2 ratio of 10 7 this reaction proceeds at a rate of 2 2 10 12 more than three orders of magnitude slower than the primary reaction above some of the other possible formation reactions are h nh 4 nh 3 h 2 pnh 3 e p nh 3 interstellar destruction mechanisms edit there are 113 total proposed reactions leading to the destruction of nh 3 of these 39 were tabulated in extensive tables of the chemistry among c n and o compounds 193 a review of interstellar ammonia cites the following reactions as the principal dissociation mechanisms 185 nh 3 h 3 nh 4 h 2 1 nh 3 hco nh 4 co 2 with rate constants of 4 39 10 9 194 and 2 2 10 9 195 respectively the above equations 1 2 run at a rate of 8 8 10 9 and 4 4 10 13 respectively these calculations assumed the given rate constants and abundances of nh 3 h 2 10 5 h 3 h 2 2 10 5 hco h 2 2 10 9 and total densities of n 10 5 typical of cold dense molecular clouds ...