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eno 1995b pp 2137 2138 vittman 1991 pp 197 227 loprieno 1995a p 46 loprieno 1995a p 74 loprieno 2004 p 175 allen 2000 pp 67 70 109 loprieno 1995b p 2147 loprieno 2004 p 173 allen 2000 p 13 loprieno 1995a pp 10 26 allen 2000 p 7 loprieno 2004 p 166 el daly 2005 p 164 allen 2000 p 8 strouhal 1989 p 235 lichtheim 1975 p 11 lichtheim 1975 p 215 day gordon williamson 1995 p 23 lichtheim 1980 p 159 manuelian 1998 p 401 manuelian 1998 p 403 manuelian 1998 p 405 manuelian 1998 pp 406 407 music in ancient egypt 2003 metcalfe 2018 seaburn 2018 manuelian 1998 p 126 hayes 1973 p 380 manuelian 1998 pp 399 400 clarke engelbach 1990 pp 94 97 badawy 1968 p 50 mark joshua j 14 february 2016 the step pyramid of djoser at saqqara world history encyclopedia types of temples in ancient egypt 2003 dodson 1991 p 23 dodson ikram 2008 pp 218 275 276 robins 2008 p 29 robins 2008 p 21 robins 2008 p 12 nicholson shaw 2000 p 105 1 2 james 2005 p 122 robins 2008 p 74 shaw 2003 p 204 robins 2008 p 149 robins 2008 p 158 james 2005 p 102 redford 2003 p 106 james 2005 p 117 shaw 2003 p 313 allen 2000 pp 79 94 95 wasserman 1994 pp 150 153 ikram dodson 1998 p 29 ikram dodson 1998 pp 40 51 138 shabtis 2001 james 2005 p 124 shaw 2003 p 245 gutgesell 1998 p 365 clayton 1994 p 96 shaw 2009 shaw 2003 p 400 nicholson shaw 2000 p 177 nicholson shaw 2000 p 109 nicholson shaw 2000 p 195 nicholson shaw 2000 p 215 filer 1995 p 94 filer 1995 pp 78 80 filer 1995 p 21 filer 1995 p 39 strouhal 1989 p 243 strouhal 1989 pp 244 246 strouhal 1989 p 250 pećanac et al 2013 pp 263 267 filer 1995 p 38 1 2 schuster 2000 wachsmann 2009 p 19 1 2 shea 1977 pp 31 38 curry 2011 boyle 2013 lorenzi 2013 astronomical ceiling 2020 imhausen 2007 p 11 clarke engelbach 1990 p 222 armelagos george 2000 take two beers and call me in 1 600 years use of tetracycline by nubians and ancient egyptians natural history 109 5 50 3 s2cid 89542474 depuydt leo 1 january 1998 gnomons at meroë and early trigonometry the journal of egyptian archaeology 84 171 180 doi 10 2307 3822211 jstor 3822211 clarke engelbach 1990 p 217 clarke engelbach 1990 p 218 gardiner 1957 p 197 strouhal 1989 p 241 strouhal 1989 p 241 imhausen 2007 p 31 ehret 2023 p 107 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited pp 469 705 722 bowman 2020 hassan fekri a 1 june 1988 the predynastic of egypt journal of world prehistory 2 2 135 185 bibcode 1988jwpre 2 135h doi 10 1007 bf00975416 issn 1573 7802 keita s o y 1990 studies of ancient crania from northern africa american journal of physical anthropology 83 1 35 48 bibcode 1990ajpa 83 35k doi 10 1002 ajpa 1330830105 issn 1096 8644 pmid 2221029 mukhtār muḥammad jamāl al dīn 1990 ancient civilizations of africa currey p 46 isbn 978 0852550922 retrieved 2 june 2016 the peopling of ancient egypt and the deciphering of meroitic script proceedings of the symposium held in cairo from 28 january to 3 february 1974 london karnak house 1997 pp 94 95 isbn 978 0907015994 mokhtar gamal general history of africa ii ancient civilizations of africa pp 20 25 the key questions addressed in this rubric are not about the ownership of ancient egypt it is instead about the inner dynamics of ancient egyptian societies in their own terms egypt located at the intersection of africa and eurasia is african with a fluctuating distribution of african and eurasian populations depending on historical circumstances holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited p lviii 1 2 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited pp 355 375 historically not only was upper egypt the source of the core identifiable egyptian culture but that it was primarily southerners of the eleventh twelfth seventeenth eighteenth and twenty fifth dynasties who politically reunited egypt and reinvigorated its culture keita s o y september 2022 ideas about race in nile valley histories a consideration of racial paradigms in recent presentations on nile valley africa from black pharaohs to mummy genomest journal of ancient egyptian interconnections 1 2 stiebing helft 2023 1 2 3 4 sirak sawchuk prendergast 2022 p 20 22 1 2 3 4 prendergast sawchuk sirak 2022 p 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 morez jacobs adeline irish joel d cooke ashley anastasiadou kyriaki barrington christopher gilardet alexandre kelly monica silva marina speidel leo tait frankie williams mia brucato nicolas ricaut francois xavier wilkinson caroline madgwick richard holt emily nederbragt alexandra j inglis edward hajdinjak mateja skoglund pontus girdland flink linus 2 july 2025 whole genome ancestry of an old kingdom egyptian nature 644 8077 714 721 bibcode 2025natur 644 714m doi 10 1038 s41586 025 09195 5 issn 1476 4687 pmc 12367555 pmid 40604286 strickland ashley 2 july 2025 the first genome sequenced from ancient egypt reveals surprising ancestry scientists say cnn morez jacobs supplementary table s10 predicted phenotypes from the hirisplexs system morez jacobs adeline irish joel d cooke ashley anastasiadou kyriaki barrington christopher gilardet alexandre kelly monica silva marina speidel leo tait frankie williams mia brucato nicolas ricaut francois xavier wilkinson caroline madgwick richard holt emily nederbragt alexandra j inglis edward hajdinjak mateja skoglund pontus girdland flink linus 2025 whole genome ancestry of an old kingdom egyptian nature 644 8077 714 721 bibcode 2025natur 644 714m doi 10 1038 s41586 025 09195 5 pmc 12367555 pmid 40604286 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited pp 511 531 723 731 1 2 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited p 728 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited pp 723 41 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited pp 511 531 holl augustin general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited p 730 eltis et al 2021 keita 2022 sfnp error multiple targets 2 citerefkeita2022 help ehret 2023 there is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient egyptians especially southern egyptians exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the sahara and tropical africa the distribution of population characteristics seems to follow a clinal pattern from south to north which may be explained by natural selection as well as gene flow between neighboring populations in general the inhabitants of upper egypt and nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the sahara and more southerly areas lovell nancy c 1999 egyptians physical anthropology of in bard kathryn a shubert steven blake eds encyclopedia of the archaeology of ancient egypt london routledge pp 328 331 isbn 0415185890 the data clearly suggests that the population in southern egypt became more diverse as the society more complex keita 1992 egyptian society seems never to have been closed and it is hard to believe that the modal phenotype could have remain unchanged especially if social and sexual collection were operating however it is important to emphasize that while the biology changed with increasing local social complexity the ethnicity of niloto saharo sudanese origins did not change the cultural morays ritual formulae and symbols used in writing as far as can be ascertained remained true to their southern origins keita s o y 1993 studies and comments on ancient egyptian biological relationships history in africa 20 129 154 doi 10 2307 3171969 issn 0361 5413 jstor 3171969 s2cid 162330365 ehret 2023 p 85 the physical anthropological findings from the major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient egypt in the millennium bce notably el badari as well as naqada show no demographic indebtedness to the levant they reveal instead a population with cranial and dental features with closest parallels of those of other longtime populations of the surrounding areas of northeastern africa such as nubia and the northern horn of africa members of this population did not come from somewhere else but were descendants of the long term inhabitants of these portions of africa going back many millennia p 355 the importance of iconographic sources was emphasized in the main säve söderbergh and leclant stressed that the links indicated by cave paintings between the vast expanses of the sahara and the banks of the nile nodded to a migration of peoples of the sahara and groups from the south to the valley something confirmed by research over the last thirty years diop set out to return egypt to its southern african hinterland by systematically using pharaonic statues and art to support his point of view although a debate on the north south orientation of a civilizing wave of peoples in the valley had prevailed up to that point the avalanche of new data now made this idea redundant suggesting instead the image of a growing and unifying political movement in the valley from south to north that repositioned its starting point back in time in upper egypt digs at the uj tomb of king scorpion at the abydos necropolis push back the origin of the first horus back to circa 3250 bce and the resumption of excavations at nekhen led to the exhumation of the famous elephant kings of hierakonpolis nekhen which have no inscriptions and date back even further to circa 3700 bce p 356 it quantified the key impact of sub saharan populations and found a clear link between the siwi and the peoples of north east africa we could continue with work by zakrzewski on the predynastic population of nekhen investigations by crubezy which traced the boundaries of the ancient khoisan settlement to upper egypt where its faint traces remain identifiable and keita s work as the most groundbreaking p 356 hence the work by cerny s team highlighting the close links between the peoples of upper egypt north cameroon and ethiopia the cameroon people living in the mandara mountains speaking chadic languages and the ethiopians speaking kushitic languages prior to ge ez being spread throughout the region during the aksumite period this broadens the linguistic debate to include language families that had been little studied or used in comparisons that have long focused on the east anselin alain review of ancient civilizations of africa general history of africa volume ii in general history of africa ix general history of africa revisited pp 355 75 zakrzewski sonia r april 2007 population continuity or population change formation of the ancient egyptian state american journal of physical anthropology 132 4 501 509 bibcode 2007ajpa 132 501z doi 10 1002 ajpa 20569 pmid 17295300 when mahalanobis d2 was used the naqadan and badarian predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to nubian tigrean and some more southern series than to some mid to late dynasticseries from northern egypt mukherjee et al 1955 the badarian have been found to be very similar to a kerma sample kushite sudanese using both the penrose statistic nutter 1958 and dfa of males alone keita 1990 furthermore keita considered that badarian males had a southern modal phenotype and that together with a naqada sample they formed a southern egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from kerma southern egypt and nubia are geographically co extensive with populations grading into each other the absorption of qustul s people would have reinforced this there is biological overlap of these populations in origin but ongoing admixture is also apparent keita s o y september 2022b ideas about race in nile valley histories a consideration of racial paradigms in recent presentations on nile valley africa from black pharaohs to mummy genomest journal of ancient egyptian interconnections hassan fekri 20 may 2021 the african dimension of egyptian origins may 2021 1 2 jr william h stiebing helft susan n 2023 ancient near eastern history and culture taylor francis pp 209 212 isbn 978 1 000 88066 3 riggs christina baines john 3 february 2012 ethnicity ucla encyclopedia of egyptology 1 1 budge e a wallis 1914 a short history of the egyptian people p 10 lam aboubacry moussa 1993 de l origine égyptienne des peuls in french présence africaine p 345 isbn 978 2 7087 0570 8 smith stuart tyson 1 february 2001 redford donald ed oxford encyclopedia of ancient egypt volume 3 pp 28 29 the most interesting part of the egyptian knowledge about sub saharan africa is in relation to punt and god s land or the lands of the gods these lands had traded with egypt since 2500 bc or even before the egyptians are not known to have had any war with the people of punt probably due to the fact that the land was not near enough to wage wars of conquest kitchen 1999 174 these were lands of semi mythical horizon dwellers egyptians also considered their gods or ancestors to have originated from these lands thought to be in eastern and southern africa whicker 1990 and hence god s land kitchen 1993 592 the records of the last millennium bc show that osiris and isis the most powerful egyptian god and goddess were ethiopians black originating from countries in the south of africa leclant 1997 157 kendall 1997 171 waterfield 1967 chami felix 2006 the unity of african ancient history 3000 bc to ad 500 dar es salaam tanzania e d ltd p 148 isbn 978 1 904855 82 8 yurco frank 1996 two tomb wall painted reliefs of ramesses iii and sety i and ancient nile valley population diversity in celenko theodore ed egypt in africa indianapolis ind indianapolis museum of art pp 109 111 isbn 0253332699 smith stuart tyson 1 february 2001 redford donald ed oxford encyclopedia of ancient egypt volume 3 pp 28 29 van de mieroop 2011 p 131 bard 2015 p 188 kamrin 2009 p 25 curry 2018 emberling 2011 pp 22 23 36 37 painted plaster cast of a relief on the exterior north wall of the hypostyle hall at karnak showing seti i trampling the libyans török 1998 pp 62 67 299 314 500 510 516 527 török 1998 pp 62 65 siliotti 1998 p 8 siliotti 1998 p 10 el daly 2005 p 112 siliotti 1998 p 13 siliotti 1998 p 100 mohamed 2022 anderson 2003 p 36 works cited aldred cyril 1988 akhenaten king of egypt thames and hudson isbn 978 0 500 05048 4 allen james p 2000 middle egyptian an introduction to the language and culture of hieroglyphs cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 77483 3 anderson jaynie 2003 tiepolo s cleopatra melbourne macmillan isbn 978 1 876832 44 5 archived from the original on 7 october 2019 retrieved 15 november 2015 aston barbara g 1994 ancient egyptian stone vessels materials and forms studien zur archäologie und geschichte altägyptens vol 5 heidelberger orientverlag pp 23 26 isbn 978 3 927552 12 8 aston barbara g harrell james a shaw ian 2000 stone obsidian in nicholson paul t shaw ian eds ancient egyptian materials and technology cambridge university press pp 46 47 isbn 978 0 521 45257 1 astronomical ceiling metropolitan museum of art archived 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