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e targets bacterial resistance genes or bacterial virulence genes instead of viral genes the modified crispr cas9 system can then be administered to bacterial pathogens using plasmids or bacteriophages 179 180 this approach has successfully been used to silence antibiotic resistance and reduce the virulence of enterohemorrhagic e coli in an in vivo model of infection 180 reducing the selection pressure for antibiotic resistance edit main article antimicrobial resistance share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities in 2022 213 in addition to developing new antibacterial treatments it is important to reduce the selection pressure for the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance amr such as antibiotic resistance strategies to accomplish this include well established infection control measures such as infrastructure improvement e g less crowded housing 214 215 better sanitation e g safe drinking water and food 216 217 better use of vaccines and vaccine development 20 182 other approaches such as antibiotic stewardship 218 219 and experimental approaches such as the use of prebiotics and probiotics to prevent infection 220 221 222 223 antibiotic cycling where antibiotics are alternated by clinicians to treat microbial diseases is proposed but recent studies revealed such strategies are ineffective against antibiotic resistance 224 225 vaccines edit vaccines are an essential part of the response to reduce amr as they prevent infections reduce the use and overuse of antimicrobials and slow the emergence and spread of drug resistant pathogens 20 vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection leading to the activation of macrophages the production of antibodies inflammation and other classic immune reactions antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases 226 see also edit anthelmintic antifungal antibiomania antimalarial medication antiprotozoal 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