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free encyclopedia scientific study of life biological redirects here for other uses see biological disambiguation and biology disambiguation part of a series on biology index outline glossary history timeline key components cell theory ecosystem evolution phylogeny properties of life adaptation energy processing growth order regulation reproduction death response to environment groups of life archaea bacteria eukaryotes animals fungi land plants protists branches abiogenesis aerobiology agronomy agrostology anatomy anthropogeny anthropology astrobiology bacteriology biochemistry biogeography biogeology bioinformatics biological engineering biomathematics biomechanics biophysics biosemiotics biostatistics biotechnology botany cell biology cellular microbiology chemical biology chronobiology cognitive biology comparative biology computational biology conservation biology cryobiology cytogenetics dendrology developmental biology ecological genetics ecology embryology epidemiology epigenetics evolutionary biology freshwater biology generative biology genetics genomics geobiology gerontology herpetology histology human biology ichthyology immunology lipidology mammalogy marine biology microbiology molecular biology mycology neontology neuroscience nutrition ornithology osteology paleontology parasitology pathology pharmacology photobiology phycology phylogenetics physiology pomology primatology proteomics protistology quantum biology relational biology reproductive biology sociobiology spatial biology structural biology synthetic biology systematics systems biology taxonomy teratology toxicology virology virophysics welfare biology xenobiology zoology research biologist list list of biology awards list of journals list of research methods list of unsolved problems applications agricultural science biomedical sciences health technology pharming biology portal category v t e biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms it is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and unifying principles that explain the structure function growth origin evolution and distribution of life central to biology are five fundamental themes the cell as the basic unit of life genes and heredity as the basis of inheritance evolution as the driver of biological diversity energy transformation for sustaining life processes and homeostasis the maintenance of internal stability 1 2 biology examines life across multiple levels of organization from molecules and cells to organisms population and ecosystems subdisciplines include molecular biology physiology ecology evolutionary biology developmental biology and systematics among others each of these fields applies a range of methods to investigate biological phenomena including observation experimentation and mathematical modeling modern biology is grounded in the theory of evolution by natural selection first articulated by charles darwin and in the molecular understanding of genes encoded in dna the discovery of the structure of dna and advances in molecular genetics have transformed many areas of biology leading to applications in medicine agriculture biotechnology and environmental science biologists classify organisms from single celled archaea and bacteria to multicellular plants fungi and animals based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships using taxonomic and phylogenetics etymology from greek βίος bíos life from proto indo european root gwei to live and λογία logia study of the compound appears in the title of volume 3 of michael christoph hanow s philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae geologia biologia phytologia generalis et dendrologia published in 1766 the term biology in its modern sense appears to have been introduced independently by thomas beddoes in 1799 3 karl friedrich burdach in 1800 gottfried reinhold treviranus biologie oder philosophie der lebenden natur 1802 and jean baptiste lamarck hydrogéologie 1802 4 5 6 history main article history of biology the earliest of roots of science which included medicine can be traced to ancient egypt and mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 bce 7 8 their contributions shaped ancient greek natural philosophy 9 7 8 10 11 ancient greek philosophers such as aristotle 384 322 bce contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge 12 he explored biological causation and the diversity of life his successor theophrastus began the scientific study of plants 13 scholars of the medieval islamic world who wrote on biology included al jahiz 781 869 al dīnawarī 828 896 who wrote on botany 14 biology began to develop quickly with anton van leeuwenhoek s dramatic improvement of the microscope it was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa bacteria infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life investigations by jan swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop techniques of microscopic dissection and staining 15 advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking in the early 19th century biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell in 1838 schleiden and schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that 1 the basic unit of organisms is the cell and 2 that individual cells have all the characteristics of life although they opposed the idea that 3 all cells come from the division of other cells continuing to support spontaneous generation however robert remak and rudolf virchow were able to reify the third tenet and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into cell theory 16 17 meanwhile taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians carl linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species 18 georges louis leclerc comte de buffon treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable even suggesting the possibility of common descent 19 in 1842 charles darwin penned his first sketch of on the origin of species 20 serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of jean baptiste lamarck who presented a coherent theory of evolution 21 the british naturalist charles darwin combining the biogeographical approach of humboldt the uniformitarian geology of lyell malthus s writings on population growth and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection similar reasoning and evidence led alfred russel wallace to independently reach the same conclusions 22 23 the basis for modern genetics began with the work of gregor mendel in 1865 24 this outlined the principles of biological inheritance 25 however the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled darwinian evolution with classical genetics 26 in the 1940s and early 1950s a series of experiments by alfred hershey and martha chase pointed to dna as the component of chromosomes that held the trait carrying units that had become known as genes a focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria along with the discovery of the double helical structure of dna by james watson and francis crick in 1953 marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics from the 1950s onwards biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain the genetic code was cracked by har gobind khorana robert w holley and marshall warren nirenberg after dna was understood to contain codons the human genome project was launched in 1990 to map the human genome 27 fields see also list of biology disciplines biochemistry biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms 28 molecular biology molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells it is centered largely on the study of nucleic acids such as dna and rna and proteins it examines the structure function and interactions of these macromolecules as they orchestrate processes such as replication transcription translation protein synthesis and complex biomolecular interactions 29 30 31 in 1953 the miller urey experiment showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of early earth thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early earth in the process of abiogenesis 32 33 cell biology main article cell biology cell biology is the branch of biology that studies the structure function and behaviour of cells 34 35 bioenergetics is a field in biochemistry and cell biology that concerns energy flow through living systems 36 this is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and other metabolic and enzymatic processes that enable the use of energy 37 genetics main article genetics punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple b and white b blossoms genetics is the scientific study of inheritance 38 39 40 classical genetics specifically is the study of how genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring its principles are called mendelian inheritance 25 a punnett square can be used to predict the results of a test cross the chromosome theory of inheritance which states that genes are found on chromosomes was supported by thomas morgans s experiments with fruit flies which established the sex linkage between eye color and sex in these insects 41 evolutionary developmental biology main article evolutionary developmental biology evolutionary developmental biology compares the developmental processes of different organisms to infer how developmental processes evolved the field grew from 19th century beginnings where embryology faced a mystery zoologists did not know how embryonic development was controlled at the molecular level charles darwin noted that having similar embryos implied common ancestry but little progress was made until the 1970s then recombinant dna technology at last brought embryology together with molecular genetics 42 43 a key early discovery was that of homeotic genes that regulate development in a wide range of eukaryotes 44 the field explores deep homology the finding that dissimilar organs such as the eyes of insects vertebrates and cephalopod molluscs long thought to have evolved separately are controlled by similar genes from the evo devo gene toolkit 45 evolutionary biology main article evolutionary biology evolutionary biology is a subfield of biology that analyzes the mechanisms of evolution evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life on earth theodosius dobzhansky famously said nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution 46 population genetics for example studies how genetic variation develops how it is inherited and how the evolutionary mechanisms shape a population s genetic composition 47 research in evolutionary biology covers many topics and incorporates ideas from diverse areas such as molecular genetics and mathematical and theoretical biology some fields of evolutionary research try to explain phenomena that were poorly accounted for in the modern evolutionary synthesis these include speciation 48 49 the evolution of sexual reproduction 50 51 the evolution of cooperation the evolution of ageing 52 and evolvability 53 ecology main article ecology ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life the interaction between organisms and their environment 54 systematics phylogenetics and taxonomy further information systematics phylogenetics and taxonomy systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms both past and present and the relationships among living things through time relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees studied using phylogenetics and creating a unified taxonomy of life 55 56 conservation biology main article conservation biology conservation biology is the study of the conservation of earth s biodiversity with the aim of protecting species their habitats and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions 57 58 59 it is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance loss and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender genetic population species and ecosystem diversity 60 61 62 63 the concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50 of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years 64 which has contributed to poverty starvation and will reset the course of evolution on this planet 65 66 conservation biologists research the trends of biodiversity loss species extinctions and the negative effect these are having on our cap...