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weapons accidental or a naturally occurring event a chapter on biotechnology and biosecurity was included in nick bostrom s 2008 anthology global catastrophic risks which covered risks including viral agents 3 since then new technologies like crispr and gene drives have been introduced while the ability to deliberately engineer pathogens has been constrained to high end labs run by top researchers the technology to achieve this is rapidly becoming cheaper and more widespread 4 for example the diminishing cost of sequencing the human genome from 10 million to 1 000 the accumulation of large datasets of genetic information the discovery of gene drives and the discovery of crispr 5 biotechnology risk is therefore a credible explanation for the fermi paradox 6 gmos edit genetically modified organisms gmos particularly gm foods are involved in a series of controversies regarding their risks to health and the environment there is also a risk that organisms could be genetically modified and used as biological weapons health risks of gm food edit main article genetically modified food controversies health unexpected gene interactions edit the expected outcomes of a transferred gene construct may differ due to gene interactions it has been hypothesized that genetic modification can potentially cause unintended changes in metabolism 7 however compared with traditionally bred crops gmos are considerably less genetically disruptive as they typically involve precise alterations in only a small number of genes 8 9 allergenic potential edit the allergenic potential of gmos refers to their capacity to elicit an allergic reaction in already sensitized consumers regulatory authorities require that new genetically modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed 10 and to date there is no evidence that any genetically modified food is more allergenic than its conventional equivalent 11 nevertheless some researchers emphasize the risk that newly expressed proteins could sensitize populations and become new allergens 12 to assess this digestibility tests are employed taking into account the non absolute relationship between a protein s stability in the gastrointestinal tract and its likelihood of triggering immune system sensitization 11 13 14 the risk of novel proteins sensitizing populations is not exclusive to genetic engineering conventional plant breeding which is often far more genetically disruptive 8 9 carries the same potential risk yet is subject to considerably less scrutiny in this regard antibiotic resistance edit one risk associated with gmos is the possibility of horizontal gene transfer hgt of antibiotic resistance genes during the genetic modification process antibiotic resistance genes are commonly used as genetic markers to identify which cells have been successfully modified the concern is that these marker genes could be horizontally transferred to bacteria present in the human gastrointestinal tract or in the environment conferring resistance to specific antibiotics however the transfer of genes from plants to bacteria is extremely rare due to the specific conditions and mechanisms required for gene transfer incorporation and transmission in bacteria 15 16 17 18 19 furthermore antibiotic resistance genes occur naturally in bacterial populations 19 and the genes used as markers typically confer resistance to antibiotics that are not widely prescribed 20 17 gain of function mutations edit main article gain of function research research edit see also genetically modified virus pathogens may be intentionally or unintentionally genetically modified to change their characteristics including virulence or toxicity 2 when intentional these mutations can serve to adapt the pathogen to a laboratory setting understand the mechanism of transmission or pathogenesis or in the development of therapeutics such mutations have also been used in the development of biological weapons and dual use risk continues to be a concern in the research of pathogens 21 the greatest concern is frequently associated with gain of function mutations which confer novel or increased functionality and the risk of their release gain of function research on viruses has been occurring since the 1970s and came to notoriety after influenza vaccines were serially passed through animal hosts citation needed mousepox edit a group of australian researchers unintentionally changed characteristics of the mousepox virus while trying to develop a virus to sterilize rodents as a means of biological pest control 2 22 23 the modified virus became highly lethal even in vaccinated and naturally resistant mice 24 influenza edit in 2011 two laboratories published reports of mutational screens of avian influenza viruses identifying variants which become transmissible through the air between ferrets these viruses seem to overcome an obstacle which limits the global impact of natural h5n1 25 26 in 2012 scientists further screened point mutations of the h5n1 virus genome to identify mutations which allowed airborne spread 27 28 while the stated goal of this research was to improve surveillance and prepare for influenza viruses which are of particular risk in causing a pandemic 29 there was significant concern that the laboratory strains themselves could escape 30 marc lipsitch and alison p galvani coauthored a paper in plos medicine arguing that experiments in which scientists manipulate bird influenza viruses to make them transmissible in mammals deserve more intense scrutiny as to whether or not their risks outweigh their benefits 31 lipsitch also described influenza as the most frightening potential pandemic pathogen 32 regulation edit in 2014 the united states instituted a moratorium on gain of function research into influenza mers and sars 33 this was in response to the particular risks these airborne pathogens pose however many scientists opposed the moratorium arguing that this limited their ability to develop antiviral therapies 34 the scientists argued gain of function mutations were necessary such as adapting mers to laboratory mice so it could be studied the national science advisory board for biosecurity also has instituted rules for research proposals using gain of function research of concern 35 the rules outline how experiments are to be evaluated for risks safety measures and potential benefits prior to funding in order to limit access to minimize the risk of easy access to genetic material from pathogens including viruses the members of the international gene synthesis consortium screen orders for regulated pathogen and other dangerous sequences 36 orders for pathogenic or dangerous dna are verified for customer identity barring customers on governmental watch lists and only to institutions demonstrably engaged in legitimate research crispr edit see also crispr following surprisingly fast advances in crispr editing an international summit proclaimed clarification needed in december 2015 that it was irresponsible to proceed with human gene editing until issues in safety and efficacy were addressed 37 one way in which crispr editing can cause existential risk is through gene drives which are said to have potential to revolutionize ecosystem management 38 gene drives are a novel technology that have potential to make genes spread through wild populations extremely quickly they have the potential to rapidly spread resistance genes against malaria in order to rebuff the malaria parasite plasmodium falciparum 39 these gene drives were originally engineered in january 2015 by ethan bier and valentino gantz this editing was spurred by the discovery of crispr cas9 in late 2015 darpa started to study approaches that could halt gene drives if they went out of control and threatened biological species 40 see also edit global catastrophic risk human extinction biological warfare references edit existential risks analyzing human extinction scenarios nickbostrom com retrieved 3 april 2016 1 2 3 ali noun christopher f chyba 2008 chapter 20 biotechnology and biosecurity in bostrom nick cirkovic milan m eds global catastrophic risks oxford university press bostrom nick cirkovic milan m 29 september 2011 global catastrophic risks nick bostrom milan m cirkovic 9780199606504 amazon com books oup oxford isbn 978 0 19 960650 4 via amazon com collinge david b jørgensen hans j l lund ole s lyngkjær michael f 1 july 2010 engineering pathogen resistance in crop plants current trends and future prospects annual review of phytopathology 48 1 269 291 doi 10 1146 annurev phyto 073009 114430 issn 0066 4286 pmid 20687833 fli future of life institute futureoflife org retrieved 3 april 2016 sotos john g 15 january 2019 biotechnology and the lifetime of technical civilizations international journal of astrobiology 18 5 445 454 arxiv 1709 01149 bibcode 2019ijasb 18 445s doi 10 1017 s1473550418000447 issn 1473 5504 s2cid 119090767 bawa a s anilakumar k r 19 december 2012 genetically modified foods safety risks and public concerns a review journal of food science and technology 50 6 1035 1046 doi 10 1007 s13197 012 0899 1 issn 0022 1155 pmc 3791249 pmid 24426015 1 2 ricroch agnès e bergé jean b kuntz marcel 1 march 2011 evaluation of genetically engineered crops using transcriptomic proteomic and metabolomic profiling techniques plant physiology 155 4 1752 1761 doi 10 1104 pp 111 173609 issn 1532 2548 pmc 3091128 pmid 21350035 1 2 herman rod a price william d 4 december 2013 unintended compositional changes in genetically modified gm crops 20 years of research journal of agricultural and food chemistry 61 48 11695 11701 bibcode 2013jafc 6111695h doi 10 1021 jf400135r issn 0021 8561 pmid 23414177 staff 15 february 2006 food safety evaluation the allergy check gmo compass archived from the original on 3 january 2013 retrieved 1 march 2026 1 2 dunn s eliza vicini john l glenn kevin c fleischer david m greenhawt matthew j 2017 the allergenicity of genetically modified foods from genetically engineered crops annals of allergy asthma immunology 119 3 214 222 e3 doi 10 1016 j anai 2017 07 010 issn 1534 4436 pmid 28890018 hug kristina february 2008 genetically modified organisms do the benefits outweigh the risks medicina 44 2 87 99 doi 10 3390 medicina44020012 issn 1648 9144 pmid 18344661 ladics gregory s 1 january 2019 assessment of the potential allergenicity of genetically engineered food crops journal of immunotoxicology 16 1 43 53 doi 10 1080 1547691x 2018 1533904 issn 1547 691x pmid 30409058 foster emily s kimber ian dearman rebecca j 2013 relationship between protein digestibility and allergenicity comparisons of pepsin and cathepsin toxicology 309 30 38 doi 10 1016 j tox 2013 04 011 issn 1879 3185 pmid 23624183 bennett p m 12 february 2004 an assessment of the risks associated with the use of antibiotic resistance genes in genetically modified plants report of the working party of the british society for antimicrobial chemotherapy journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy 53 3 418 431 doi 10 1093 jac dkh087 issn 1460 2091 pmid 14749339 gay philippe b gillespie stephen h 2005 antibiotic resistance markers in genetically modified plants a risk to human health the lancet infectious diseases 5 10 637 646 doi 10 1016 s1473 3099 05 70241 3 pmid 16183518 1 2 european food safety authority efsa 2009 consolidated presentation of the joint scientific opinion of the gmo and biohaz panels on the use of antibiotic resistance genes as marker genes in genetically modified plants and the scientific opinion of the gmo panel on consequences of the opinion on the use of antibiotic resistance genes as marker genes in genetically modified plants on previous efsa assessments of individual gm plants efsa journal 7 6 doi 10 2903 j efsa 2009 1108 ramessar koreen peremarti ariadna gómez galera sonia naqvi shaista moralejo marian muñoz pilar capell teresa christou paul 2007 biosafety and risk assessment framework for selectable marker genes in transgenic crop plants a case of the science not supporting the politics transgenic research 16 3 261 280 doi 10 1007 s11248 007 9083 1 issn 0962 8819 pmid 17436060 1 2 halford n g shewry p r 1 january 2000 genetically modified crops methodology benefits regulation and public concerns british medical bulletin 56 1 62 73 doi 10 1258 0007142001902978 issn 0007 1420 pmid 10885105 bakshi anita 2003 potential adverse health effects of genetically modified crops journal of toxicology and environmental health part b 6 3 211 225 bibcode 2003jtehb 6 211b doi 10 1080 10937400306469 issn 1093 7404 pmid 12746139 s2cid 1346969 kloblentz gd 2012 from biodefence to biosecurity the obama administration s strategy for countering biological threats international affairs 88 1 131 48 doi 10 1111 j 1468 2346 2012 01061 x pmid 22400153 s2cid 22869150 jackson r ramshaw i january 2010 the mousepox experience an interview with ronald jackson and ian ramshaw on dual use research interview by michael j selgelid and lorna weir embo reports 11 1 18 24 doi 10 1038 embor 2009 270 pmc 2816623 pmid 20010799 jackson ronald j ramsay alistair j christensen carina d beaton sandra hall diana f ramshaw ian a 2001 expression of mouse interleukin 4 by a recombinant ectromelia virus suppresses cytolytic lymphocyte responses and overcomes genetic resistance to mousepox journal of virology 75 3 1205 1210 doi 10 1128 jvi 75 3 1205 1210 2001 pmc 114026 pmid 11152493 sandberg anders 29 may 2014 the five biggest threats to human existence theconversation com retrieved 13 july 2014 imai m watanabe t hatta m das sc ozawa m shinya k zhong g hanson a katsura h watanabe s li c kawakami e yamada s kiso m suzuki y maher ea neumann g kawaoka y 2 may 2012 experimental adaptation of an influenza h5 ha confers respiratory droplet transmission to a reassortant h5 ha h1n1 virus in ferrets nature 486 7403 420 8 bibcode 2012natur 486 420i doi 10 1038 nature10831 pmc 3388103 pmid 22722205 the risk from super 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