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ction 7 1 molecular genetics 7 2 epigenetics 8 plant evolution 9 plant physiology toggle plant physiology subsection 9 1 plant hormones 10 plant anatomy and morphology 11 systematic botany 12 symbols 13 see also 14 notes 15 references toggle references subsection 15 1 citations 15 2 sources 16 external links toggle the table of contents botany 183 languages аԥсшәа afrikaans alemannisch አማርኛ aragonés العربية مصرى অসমীয়া asturianu azərbaycanca башҡортса boarisch žemaitėška bikol central беларуская тарашкевіца беларуская betawi български भोजपुरी bislama ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ বাংলা བོད ཡིག brezhoneg bosanski batak mandailing català нохчийн cebuano کوردی corsu qırımtatarca čeština чӑвашла cymraeg dansk deutsch zazaki ދިވެހިބަސް ελληνικά esperanto español eesti euskara estremeñu فارسی suomi na vosa vakaviti français arpetan furlan frysk gaeilge kriyòl gwiyannen gàidhlig galego avañe ẽ gaelg hausa hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी fiji hindi hrvatski kreyòl ayisyen magyar հայերեն արեւմտահայերէն interlingua bahasa indonesia interlingue ilokano гӏалгӏай ido íslenska italiano 日本語 patois la lojban jawa ქართული qaraqalpaqsha taqbaylit қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ yerwa kanuri 한국어 کٲشُر kurdî kernowek кыргызча latina ladino lëtzebuergesch лезги lingua franca nova limburgs lombard lietuvių latviešu madhurâ मैथिली basa banyumasan олык марий македонски മലയാളം монгол मराठी кырык мары bahasa melayu malti မြန်မာဘာသာ nāhuatl plattdüütsch नेपाली नेपाल भाषा nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål novial ߒߞߏ nouormand occitan oromoo ଓଡ଼ିଆ ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ kapampangan pälzisch polski piemontèis پنجابی پښتو português runa simi ရခိုင် română русский русиньскый ikinyarwanda संस्कृतम् саха тыла sardu sicilianu scots سنڌي srpskohrvatski српскохрватски taclḥit සිංහල simple english slovenčina slovenščina shqip српски srpski sunda svenska kiswahili தமிழ் తెలుగు тоҷикӣ ไทย türkmençe tagalog toki pona türkçe татарча tatarça удмурт українська اردو oʻzbekcha ўзбекча vèneto vepsän kel tiếng việt volapük walon winaray 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 閩南語 bân lâm gí 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikibooks wikiquote wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia redirected from botanist study of plant life several terms redirect here for other uses see botany disambiguation botanic disambiguation and botanist disambiguation the fruit of myristica fragrans a species native to indonesia is the source of two valuable spices the red aril mace enclosing the dark brown nutmeg part of a series on biology index outline glossary history timeline key components cell theory ecosystem evolution phylogeny properties of life adaptation energy processing growth order regulation reproduction death response to environment groups of life archaea bacteria eukaryotes animals fungi land plants protists branches abiogenesis aerobiology agronomy agrostology anatomy anthropogeny anthropology astrobiology bacteriology biochemistry biogeography biogeology bioinformatics biological engineering biomathematics biomechanics biophysics biosemiotics biostatistics biotechnology botany cell biology cellular microbiology chemical biology chronobiology cognitive biology comparative biology computational biology conservation biology cryobiology cytogenetics dendrology developmental biology ecological genetics ecology embryology epidemiology epigenetics evolutionary biology freshwater biology generative biology genetics genomics geobiology gerontology herpetology histology human biology ichthyology immunology lipidology mammalogy marine biology microbiology molecular biology mycology neontology neuroscience nutrition ornithology osteology paleontology parasitology pathology pharmacology photobiology phycology phylogenetics physiology pomology primatology proteomics protistology quantum biology relational biology reproductive biology sociobiology spatial biology structural biology synthetic biology systematics systems biology taxonomy teratology toxicology virology virophysics welfare biology xenobiology zoology research biologist list list of biology awards list of journals list of research methods list of unsolved problems applications agricultural science biomedical sciences health technology pharming biology portal category v t e botany also called plant science is the branch of natural science and biology that studies the growth reproduction and evolution of plants over the last 3 5 billion years of life on earth as with all areas of biology and medicine plants can be studied at range of levels from their biochemistry molecular biology cell biology and genetics to their ecology pathology anatomy morphology and taxonomy 1 2 a botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field plants can be defined in multiple ways including approximately 410 000 species of land plants and some 391 000 species of vascular plants of which approximately 369 000 are flowering plants 3 and approximately 20 000 bryophytes 4 botany originated from prehistoric herbalism to identify and cultivate plants that were edible poisonous and medicinal making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation 5 medieval physic gardens often attached to monasteries contained plants that possibly had medicinal benefits they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities founded from the 1540s onwards one of the earliest was the padua botanical garden these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of carl linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species in the 19th and 20th centuries new techniques were developed for the study of plants including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging electron microscopy analysis of chromosome number plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins in the last two decades of the 20th century botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis including genomics and proteomics and dna sequences to classify plants more accurately modern botany is a broad subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology research topics include the study of plant structure growth and differentiation reproduction biochemistry and primary metabolism chemical products development diseases evolutionary relationships systematics and plant taxonomy dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods materials such as timber oil rubber fibre and drugs in modern horticulture agriculture and forestry plant propagation breeding and genetic modification in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production in environmental management and the maintenance of biodiversity etymology edit the term botany comes from the ancient greek word botanē βοτάνη meaning pasture herbs grass or fodder 6 botanē is in turn derived from boskein greek βόσκειν to feed or to graze 7 8 9 traditionally botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the international botanical congress history edit main article history of botany early botany edit an engraving of the cells of cork from robert hooke s micrographia 1665 leonhart fuchs otto brunfels hieronymus bock botany originated as herbalism the study and use of plants for their possible medicinal properties 10 the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from india dating back to before 1100 bce 11 12 ancient egypt 13 in archaic avestan writings and in works from china purportedly from before 221 bce 11 14 modern botany traces its roots back to ancient greece specifically to theophrastus c 371 287 bce a student of aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the father of botany 15 his major works enquiry into plants and on the causes of plants constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the middle ages almost seventeen centuries later 15 16 another work from ancient greece that made an early impact on botany is de materia medica a five volume encyclopaedia about preliminary herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by greek physician and pharmacologist pedanius dioscorides de materia medica was widely read for more than 1 500 years 17 important contributions from the medieval muslim world include ibn wahshiyya s nabatean agriculture abū ḥanīfa dīnawarī s 828 896 the book of plants and ibn bassal s the classification of soils in the early 13th century abu al abbas al nabati and ibn al baitar d 1248 wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner 18 19 20 in the mid 16th century botanical gardens were founded in a number of italian universities the padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first that is still in its original location these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens often associated with monasteries in which plants were cultivated for suspected medicinal uses they supported the growth of botany as an academic subject lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens botanical gardens came much later to northern europe the first in england was the university of oxford botanic garden in 1621 21 german physician leonhart fuchs 1501 1566 was one of the three german fathers of botany along with theologian otto brunfels 1489 1534 and physician hieronymus bock 1498 1554 also called hieronymus bock 22 23 fuchs and brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own bock created his own system of plant classification physician valerius cordus 1515 1544 authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal historia plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance the dispensatorium in 1546 24 naturalist conrad von gesner 1516 1565 and herbalist john gerard 1545 c 1611 published herbals covering the supposed medicinal uses of plants naturalist ulisse aldrovandi 1522 1605 was considered the father of natural history which included the study of plants in 1665 using an early microscope polymath robert hooke discovered cells a term he coined in cork and a short time later in living plant tissue 25 early modern botany edit further information taxonomy biology history of taxonomy the linnaean garden of linnaeus residence in uppsala sweden was planted according to his systema sexuale during the 18th century systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups e g family genus and species by making a series of choices between pairs of characters the choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification diagnostic keys or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys 26 by the 18th century unidentified plants were arriving in europe in increasing numbers from newly explored areas and european colonies in 1753 carl linnaeus published his species plantarum a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature this established a standardised binomial or two part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus 27 for the purposes of identification linnaeus s systema sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs the 24th group cryptogamia included all plants with concealed reproductive parts mosses liverworts ferns algae and fungi 28 increasing knowledge of plant anatomy morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of linnaeus adanson 1763 de jussieu 1789 and candolle 1819 all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed the candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later bentham hooker system which was influential until the mid 19th century was influenced by candolle s approach darwin s publication of the origin of species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity 29 in the 19th century botany was a socially acceptable hobby for upper class women these women would collect and paint flowers and plants from around the world with scientific accuracy the paintings were used to record many species that could not be transported or maintained in other environments marianne north illustrated over 900 species in extreme detail with watercolour and oil paintings 30 her work and many other women s botany work was the beginning of popularising botany to a wider audience botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first modern textbook matthias schleiden s grundzüge der wissenschaftlichen botanik published in english in 1849 as principles of scientific botany 31 schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co founded the cell theory with theodor schwann and rudolf virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by robert brown in 1831 32 in 1855 adolf fick formulated fick s laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems 33 echeveria glauca in a connecticut greenhouse botany uses latin names for identification here the specific name glauca means blue late modern botany edit building upon the gene chromosome theory of heredity that originated with gregor mendel 1822 1884 august weismann 1834 1914 proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes no other cells can pass on inherited characters 34 the work of katherine esau 1898 1997 on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany her books plant anatomy and anatomy of seed plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a centur...