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cholarship sometimes portrayed the carolingian period as an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the roman empire motivated by humanist and antiquarian interests 28 more recent historiography however tends to view the carolingian renaissance primarily as a religious reform project 29 rather than a pure revival carolingian scholars described their engagement with classical learning as correctio this notion of correctio combined with pragmatic concerns aimed to correct and transform older knowledge into something useful and suitable for a newly unified christian society society whose salvation charlemagne as its ruler felt personally responsible for 30 scholarly efforts edit see also carolingian minuscule and medieval latin a lack of latin literacy in eighth century western europe caused problems for the carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where latin was valued of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the vulgate bible while lack of literacy was not unexpected among lay people it was surprising to find poor reading and writing skills among the clergy however this is what charlemagne discovered largely through letters written to him and his court from monasteries this lack of education among religious authorities and thus wisdom to understand the bible was alarming to charlemagne who sought to convert his subjects to christianity the agents of conversion were supposed to be the clergy however charlemagne feared their ability to instruct lay people on christianity and therefore lead them to salvation was impaired by their own poor education to rectify this and therefore accomplish the task of christianizing his empire charlemagne ordered new educational mandates specifically aimed at instructing clergy and future clergy charlemagne made this first pronouncement on education in a letter the de litteris colendis and sent it to the abbot of fulda baugulf with the added instruction that it be copied and sent to other major monasteries throughout his realm an additional problem was that the vulgar latin of the later western roman empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects the precursors to today s romance languages that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of europe citation needed alcuin pictured centre was one of the leading scholars of the carolingian renaissance to address these problems charlemagne ordered the creation of schools in a capitulary known as the charter of modern thought issued in 787 31 a major part of his program of reform was to attract many of the leading scholars of the christendom of his day to his court among the first called to court were italians peter of pisa who from 776 to about 790 instructed charlemagne in latin and from 776 to 787 paulinus of aquileia whom charlemagne nominated as patriarch of aquileia in 787 the lombard paul the deacon was brought to court in 782 and remained until 787 when charles nominated him abbot of montecassino theodulf of orléans was a spanish goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of orléans theodulf had been in friendly competition over the standardization of the vulgate with the chief among the charlemagne s scholars alcuin of york alcuin was a northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of the palace school from 782 to 796 except for the years 790 to 793 when he returned to england after 796 he continued his scholarly work as abbot of st martin s monastery in tours 27 among those to follow alcuin across the channel to the frankish court was joseph scottus an irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic experiments after this first generation of non frankish scholars their frankish pupils such as angilbert would make their own mark the later courts of louis the pious and charles the bald had similar groups of scholars many of whom were of irish origin the irish monk dicuil attended the former court and the more famous irishman john scotus eriugena attended the latter becoming head of the palace school at aachen other notable ecclesiastical authorities of the carolingian renaissance to assist with educational and religious reforms were baugulf abbot of fulda 779 802 claudius bishop of turin 817 827 hraban maur abbot of fulda 822 842 and archbishop of mainz 847 856 lupus abbot of ferrières 840 c 862 and hincmar archbishop of rheims 845 882 educational reforms played a crucial role in the carolingian renaissance while much of this reform centered on educating the ecclesiastical body who could then teach and convert others in the empire to christianity charlemagne aimed to educate members of the aristocracy and even lay people as well two types of schools emerged as a result the palace school emerged at the carolingian court the result of charlemagne inviting great scholars and others arriving themselves for the hope of patronage one of these scholars contribution at court was to educate aristocratic children this was a loosely organized body which disbanded before long the scholars leaving court with some beginning their own educational centers at cathedrals and monasteries for example external schools emerged throughout the empire rather than being centered at court students not aiming to become monks could be trained in latin literacy at these institutions this was especially beneficial as most records in the carolingian empire were composed in latin including theological materials there was a christian element to this as well due to the prevalence of latin in the empire to understand christian doctrine and biblical texts it was necessary to possess latin literacy one of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools alcuin led this effort and was responsible for the writing of textbooks creation of word lists and establishing the trivium and quadrivium as the basis for education 32 another contribution from this period was the development of carolingian minuscule a book hand first used at the monasteries of corbie and tours that introduced the use of lower case letters a standardized version of latin was also developed that allowed for the coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of classical latin this medieval latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travellers to make themselves understood in various regions of europe 33 the earliest concept of europe as a distinct cultural region instead of simply a geographic area appeared during the carolingian renaissance of the 9th century and included the territories which practiced western christianity at the time 34 it has been estimated that carolingian workshops produced over 100 000 manuscripts in the 9th century of which some 6000 to 7000 survive 35 the carolingians produced the earliest surviving copies of the works of cicero horace martial statius lucretius terence julius caesar boethius and martianus capella 36 no copies of the texts of these authors were made in the latin west in the 7th and 8th centuries 36 reform of latin pronunciation edit according to roger wright the carolingian renaissance is responsible for the modern day pronunciation of ecclesiastical latin up until that point there had been no conceptual distinction between latin and romance the former was simply regarded as the written form of the latter for instance in early medieval spain the word for century which would have been pronounced sjeglo was properly spelled saeculum as it had been for the better part of a millennium the scribe would not have read aloud saeculum as sɛkulum any more than an english speaker today would pronounce knight as knɪxt rather than naɪt 37 non native speakers of latin however such as clergy of anglo saxon or irish origin appear to have used a rather different pronunciation presumably attempting to sound out each word according to its spelling the carolingian renaissance in france introduced this artificial pronunciation for the first time to native speakers as well no longer would for instance the word viridiarium orchard be read aloud as the equivalent old french word verdʒjǽr it now had to be pronounced precisely as spelled with all six syllables viridiarium 38 such a radical change had the effect of rendering latin sermons completely unintelligible to the general romance speaking public which prompted officials a few years later at the council of tours to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way in rusticam romanam linguam or plain roman ce speech while the liturgy retained the new pronunciation to this day 39 as there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as latin or romance and native germanic speakers such as church singers numerous in the empire might have struggled to read words in latin orthography according to romance orthoepy various attempts were made in france to devise a new orthography for the latter among the earliest examples are parts of the oaths of strasbourg and the sequence of saint eulalia as the carolingian reforms spread the proper latin pronunciation from france to other romance speaking areas local scholars eventually felt the need to create distinct spelling systems for their own vernaculars as well thereby initiating the literary phase of medieval romance 40 writing in romance does not appear to have become widespread until the renaissance of the twelfth century however 41 carolingian art edit main article carolingian art carolingian art spans the roughly hundred year period from about 800 900 although brief it was an influential period northern europe embraced classical mediterranean roman art forms for the first time setting the stage for the rise of romanesque art and eventually gothic art in the west illuminated manuscripts metalwork small scale sculpture mosaics and frescos survive from the period the carolingians engaged with many types of antique art such as palmettes often placing them in areas such as texts decorative borders or reliefs the leiden aratea is a great example of the carolingians preserving a pagan piece of art a ninth century copy of an astronomical treatise the carolingians took great care copying this piece of work and the antique styles which characterize it for example they meticulously illuminated the pages the square shapes of which the carolingians were also careful to maintain medicine edit main article medicine historians debate including the antique knowledge and practice of medicine as part of the carolingian renaissance however there are compelling reasons to incorporate the medical arts in this period namely that the carolingians interactions with them satisfies at least three hallmarks of the carolingian renaissance collecting and copying ancient medical texts and engaging with this information to reframe it into a christian worldview the first two are self explanatory the carolingians in this period went to great lengths to not only collect ancient medical manuscripts but to copy and therefore preserve them and often in their reformed standardized script of caroline minuscule at that regarding their reframing efforts it is important to understand the dilemma carolingians faced when interacting with antique medical knowledge namely this was considered non christian pagan information and activity after all medical practice equated with human agency in and the potential to corrupt god s perfect plan a dangerous consequence after what happened in the garden of eden the body and world at large was ruled over by god and carolingians were anxious over potentially interrupting his divine will by altering the state of the body however there were those in the carolingian renaissance who investigated this medical knowledge and its potential place in the world god created to see if it might indeed be a welcomed inclusion in their christian worldview the chief method they used for this was connecting medical practice with the bible by declaring that god himself was the ultimate physician and recalling doctoring occurring in the bible notably by jesus disciple the doctor luke carolingians declared that not only was medical knowledge and practice acceptable but an endeavor to be praised in these ways they transformed an ancient non christian practice into a christian one 42 carolingian architecture edit main article carolingian architecture instrumental music a musician playing a cithara that is thought to have evolved from the greek lyre from the 9th century charles the bald bible player with cithara that appears lute like from the 9th century utrecht psalter a cithara word used by the early 9th century stuttgart psalter being held as a citole three centuries later documents created during the carolingian renaissance show the growth of instrumental music with new instruments the images may document earlier european cythara lute types or else a revival of the roman kithara 43 carolingian architecture is the style of north european architecture promoted by charlemagne the period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of otto i in 936 and was a conscious attempt to create a roman renaissance emulating roman early christian and byzantine architecture with its own innovation resulting in having a unique character 44 this syncretic architectural style can be exemplified by the first church of st mark s in venice fusing proto romanesque and byzantine influences 45 there was a profusion of new clerical and secular buildings constructed during this period john contreni calculated that the little more than eight decades between 768 to 855 alone saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals 417 monasteries and 100 royal residences 44 carolingian currency edit see also denier solidus livre and english currency around ad 755 charlemagne s father pepin the short reformed the currency of the frankish kingdom 46 a variety of local systems was standardized minor mints were closed and royal control over the remaining bigger mints strengthened 46 increasing purity 47 in place of the gold roman and byzantine solidus then common he established a system based on a new 940 fine silver penny latin denarius french denier weighing 1 240 of a pound librum libra or lira livre 47 the carolingian pound seems to have been about 489 5 grams 48 49 making each penny about 2 grams as the debased solidus was then roughly equivalent to 11 of these pennies the shilling solidus sol was established at that value making it 1 22 of the silver pound 50 this was later adjusted to 12 and 1 20 respectively during the carolingian period however neither shillings or pounds were minted being instead used as notional units of account 47 for instance a shilling or solidus of grain was a measure equival...