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a couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in indiana or a shaded area map of ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes as the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data a third type of map is known as an orienteering or special purpose map this type of map falls somewhere between thematic and general maps they combine general map elements with thematic attributes in order to design a map with a specific audience in mind oftentimes the type of audience an orienteering map is made for is in a particular industry or occupation an example of this kind of map would be a municipal utility map 51 topographic vs topological edit a topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place including especially in the 20th and 21st centuries the use of contour lines showing elevation terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways see cartographic relief depiction in the present era one of the most widespread and advanced methods used to form topographic maps is to use computer software to generate digital elevation models which show shaded relief before such software existed cartographers had to draw shaded relief by hand one cartographer who is respected as a master of hand drawn shaded relief is the swiss professor eduard imhof whose efforts in hill shading were so influential that his method became used around the world despite it being so labor intensive 52 53 a topological map is a very general type of map the kind one might sketch on a napkin it often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information beck s london underground map is an iconic example although the most widely used map of the tube it preserves little of reality it varies scale constantly and abruptly it straightens curved tracks and it contorts directions the only topography on it is the river thames letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the river that and the topology of station order and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space 54 yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know so the map fulfills its purpose 55 map design edit main article cartographic design modern technology including advances in printing the advent of geographic information systems and graphics software and the internet has vastly simplified the process of map creation and increased the palette of design options available to cartographers this has led to a decreased focus on production skill and an increased focus on quality design the attempt to craft maps that are both aesthetically pleasing and practically useful for their intended purposes the relationship between gis distributed gis internet gis web gis mobile gis cyber gis and computer cartography illustrated map map purpose and audience edit a map has a purpose and an audience its purpose may be as broad as teaching the major physical and political features of the entire world or as narrow as convincing a neighbor to move a fence the audience may be as broad as the general public or as narrow as a single person mapmakers use design principles to guide them in constructing a map that is effective for its purpose and audience cartographic process edit the cartographic process the cartographic process spans many stages starting from conceiving the need for a map and extending all the way through its consumption by an audience conception begins with a real or imagined environment as the cartographer gathers information about the subject they consider how that information is structured and how that structure should inform the map s design next the cartographers experiment with generalization symbolization typography and other map elements to find ways to portray the information so that the map reader can interpret the map as intended guided by these experiments the cartographer settles on a design and creates the map whether in physical or electronic form once finished the map is delivered to its audience the map reader interprets the symbols and patterns on the map to draw conclusions and perhaps to take action by the spatial perspectives they provide maps help shape how we view the world 56 aspects of map design edit designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions the elements of design fall into several broad topics each of which has its own theory its own research agenda and its own best practices that said there are synergistic effects between these elements meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt areal distortion caused by mercator projection map projections the foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests whether paper or screen but projections are required to flatten the surface of the earth or other celestial bodies while all projections distort the surface cartographers strategically control how and where distortion occurs 57 for example the popular mercator projection does not distort angles on the surface but it makes regions near the poles appear larger than they are 41 generalization all maps must be drawn at a smaller scale than reality requiring that the information included on a map be a very small sample of the wealth of information about a place generalization is the process of adjusting the level of detail in geographic information to be appropriate for the scale and purpose of a map through procedures such as selection simplification and classification symbology any map visually represents the location and properties of geographic phenomena using map symbols graphical depictions composed of several visual variables such as size shape color and pattern composition as all of the symbols are brought together their interactions have major effects on map reading such as grouping and visual hierarchy typography or labeling text serves a number of purposes on the map especially aiding the recognition of features but labels must be designed and positioned well to be effective 58 layout the map image must be placed on the page whether paper web or other media along with related elements such as the title legend additional maps text images and so on each of these elements have their own design considerations as does their integration which largely follows the principles of graphic design map type specific design different kinds of maps especially thematic maps have their own design needs and best practices deliberate cartographic errors edit further information cartographic propaganda cartographic censorship and trap street some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions either as propaganda or as a watermark to help the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors maps the latter often come in the form of nonexistent misnamed or misspelled trap streets 59 other names and forms for this are paper towns fictitious entries and copyright easter eggs 60 another motive for deliberate errors is cartographic vandalism a mapmaker wishing to leave their mark on the work mount richard for example was a fictitious peak on the rocky mountains continental divide that appeared on a boulder county colorado map in the early 1970s it is believed to be the work of draftsman richard ciacci the fiction was not discovered until two years later 61 in switzerland s official maps mapmakers have hidden illustrations of a hiker fish marmot and more for over a century 62 sandy island in new caledonia is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly survives reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions with the emergence of the internet and web mapping technologies allow for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training are readily available this has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading 63 professional and learned societies edit main category cartography organizations professional and learned societies include international cartographic association ica the world body for mapping and giscience professionals as well as the ica member organizations british cartographic society bcs a registered charity in the uk dedicated to exploring and developing the world of maps society of cartographers supports in the uk the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration cartography and geographic information society cagis promotes in the u s research education and practice to improve the understanding creation analysis and use of maps and geographic information the society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts techniques approaches and experiences by those who design implement and use cartography geographical information systems and related geospatial technologies north american cartographic information society nacis a north american based cartography society that is aimed at improving communication coordination and cooperation among the producers disseminators curators and users of cartographic information their members are located worldwide and the meetings are on an annual basis canadian cartographic association cca academic journals edit see also the categories geography journals and remote sensing journals journals related to cartography as well as gis gisc include international journal of cartography the cartographic journal cartographica cartography and geographic information science cartographic perspectives kn journal of cartography and geographic information journal of maps journal of geovisualization and spatial analysis transactions in gis journal of spatial science geocarto international giscience remote sensing international journal of applied earth observation and geoinformation international journal of digital earth geoinformatica isprs international journal of geo information journal of photogrammetry remote sensing and geoinformation science geo spatial information science acm transactions on spatial algorithms and systems imago mundi revista cartográfica terrae incognitae see also edit geographic information system software history of cartography outline of cartography toponymy references edit from ancient greek χάρτης chartēs papyrus sheet of paper map and γράφειν graphein write kunzig robert may 1999 a tale of two obsessed archeologists one ancient city and nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past discover magazine archived from the original on 2019 11 20 retrieved 2011 07 08 meece stephanie 2006 a bird s eye view of a leopard s spots the çatalhöyük map and the development of cartographic representation in prehistory anatolian 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manuscripts maps in ...