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ies in the muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long lasting civil war in 1965 in 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the south s hegemony the rebel commanders then fought amongst themselves until president hissène habré defeated his rivals the chadian libyan conflict erupted in 1978 which stopped in 1987 with a french military intervention habré was overthrown in turn in 1990 by his general idriss déby with french support a modernisation of the chadian national army was initiated in 1991 from 2003 the darfur crisis in sudan spilled over the border and destabilised the nation already poor the nation struggled to accommodate over a million sudanese refugees in eastern chad while many political parties participated in the national assembly power lay firmly in the hands of the patriotic salvation movement during the presidency of déby whose rule was described as authoritarian after déby was killed by fact rebels in april 2021 the transitional military council led by his son mahamat déby assumed control of the government and dissolved the assembly 14 one of the world s least developed countries chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d état chad ranks the 4th lowest in the human development index and is among the poorest and most corrupt countries most of its inhabitants live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers since 2003 crude oil has become the country s primary source of export earnings chad has a poor human rights record history main article history of chad early history in the 7th millennium bc ecological conditions in the northern half of chadian territory favoured human settlement and its population increased considerably some of the most important african archaeological sites are found in chad mainly in the borkou ennedi tibesti region some date to earlier than 2000 bc 15 16 group of kanem bu warriors the kanem bornu empire controlled almost all of what is today chad for more than 2 000 years the chad basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people the region became a crossroads of civilisations the earliest of these was the legendary sao known from artefacts and oral histories the sao fell to the kanem empire 17 18 the first and longest lasting of the empires that developed in chad s sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium ad the power of kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans saharan trade routes that passed through the region 16 increasing islamisation of kanem was evident from the 11th century onwards 19 and kanem had developed into a literate society by the 12th century when the scribes of the empire are recorded to have developed an original script style the barnāwī 20 kanem s expansion peaked during the long reign of mai dunama dabbalemi c 1221 1259 leaving the empire as the most powerful state in central africa by the time of his death by the end of the 14th century internal struggles and external attacks had torn kanem apart finally around 1396 the bulala invaders forced mai umar idrismi to relocate the imperial centre to bornu 21 the mbang abd ar rahman gwaranga left with wadai s dud murra right two other states in the region the sultanate of bagirmi and the wadai sultanate emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries bagirmi adopted islam during the reign of abdullah iv 1568 1598 and was in a tributary relationship with kanem bornu in the 17th and 18th centuries and then with wadai in the 19th century wadai initially non muslim was taken over early in the 17th century by abd al karim who established an islamic sultanate muhammad sabun 1804 1815 established a new trade route to the north and minted his own currency and muhammad sharif 1843 1858 subjugated bagirmi and successfully resisted french colonization 21 these two states never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves 22 in kanem about a third of the population were slaves 23 french colonial period 1900 1960 main article french chad french colonial expansion led to the creation of the territoire militaire des pays et protectorats du tchad in 1900 by 1920 france had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of french equatorial africa 24 french rule was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other french colonies 25 the french primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton france introduced large scale cotton production in 1929 the colonial administration was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the french civil service only the sara people of the south were governed effectively french presence in the islamic north and east was nominal the educational system was affected by this neglect 16 25 the french administration s focus on cotton led to the formation of a precarious underclass of poorly paid rural workers a decrease in food production and even to famines in some areas 26 tensions between farmers and elites culminated in the 1952 bébalem massacre by colonial authorities 27 28 a chadian soldier fighting for free france during world war ii the free french forces included 15 000 soldiers from chad 29 after world war ii france granted chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the national assembly and a chadian assembly the largest political party was the chadian progressive party french parti progressiste tchadien ppt based in the southern half of the colony chad was granted independence on 11 august 1960 with the ppt s leader françois tombalbaye an ethnic sara as its first president 16 30 31 tombalbaye rule 1960 1979 in 1962 tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one party system tombalbaye s autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter ethnic tensions in 1965 muslims in the north led by the national liberation front of chad french front de libération nationale du tchad fronilat began a civil war becoming gradually more erratic tombalbaye s regime alienated even his southern base of support notably through the forced introduction of yondo ritual scarring for public servants and the 1973 assassination of expatriate dissident outel bono in paris 32 tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975 33 but the insurgency continued in 1979 the rebel factions led by hissène habré took the capital and central authority in the country collapsed armed factions many from the north s rebellion contended for power 34 35 civil war 1979 1987 the disintegration of chad caused the collapse of france s position in the country libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in chad s civil war 36 this ended in disaster in 1987 the french supported president habré evoked a united response from chadians of a kind never seen before 37 and forced the libyan army off chadian soil 38 dictatorship of habré 1987 1990 habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule 39 40 the president favoured his own toubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies the zaghawa his general idriss déby overthrew him in 1990 41 attempts to prosecute habré led to his placement under house arrest in senegal in 2005 in 2013 habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule 42 in may 2016 he was found guilty of human rights abuses including rape sexual slavery and ordering the killing of 40 000 people and he was sentenced to life in prison 43 déby dynasty and second civil war 1990 present despite internal political opposition coup attempts and a civil war idriss déby continuously ruled chad from 1990 until his death in 2021 déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics a constitutional referendum led to the 1996 constitution and déby easily won the 1996 presidential election he won a second term five years later 44 oil exploitation began in 2003 bringing with it hopes that chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity instead internal dissent worsened and a new civil war broke out déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two term limit on the presidency this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties 45 in 2006 déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted ethnic violence in eastern chad has increased the united nations high commissioner for refugees has warned that a genocide like the war in darfur may occur in chad 46 in 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force but failed on both occasions 47 an agreement for the restoration of harmony between chad and sudan signed 15 january 2010 marked the end of a five year war 48 and leading to the chadian rebels from sudan returning home the opening of the chad sudan border after seven years of closure and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border in may 2013 security forces in chad foiled a coup against déby that had been in preparation for several months 49 chad is one of the leading partners in a west african coalition in the fight against boko haram and other islamist militants 50 déby died on 20 april 2021 following an incursion in the north by the fact group 50 51 52 53 déby s son mahamat déby was named interim president by a transitional council of military officers the transitional council replaced the 2018 constitution with a charter granting mahamat déby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces 14 on 23 may 2024 mahamat idriss déby was sworn in as president of chad after the disputed 6 may election 54 geography main article geography of chad chad is divided into three distinct zones the sudanian savanna in the south the sahara in the north and the sahelian belt in the centre chad is a landlocked country spanning north central africa it covers an area of 1 284 000 square kilometres 496 000 sq mi 55 lying between latitudes 7 and 24 n and 13 and 24 e 56 and is the twentieth largest country in the world it is bounded to the north by libya to the east by sudan to the west by niger nigeria and cameroon and to the south by the central african republic the capital is 1 060 kilometres 660 mi from the nearest seaport douala cameroon 56 57 because of this distance from the sea and the largely desert climate chad is sometimes referred to as the dead heart of africa 58 the dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by the ennedi plateau and tibesti mountains which include emi koussi a dormant volcano that reaches 3 414 metres 11 201 ft above sea level lake chad after which the country is named and which in turn takes its name from the kanuri word for lake 59 is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330 000 square kilometres 130 000 sq mi of the chad basin 7 000 years ago 56 although in the 21st century it covers 17 806 square kilometres 6 875 sq mi and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations 60 the lake is africa s second largest wetland 61 landscape in guéra in south central chad chad contains six terrestrial ecoregions east sudanian savanna sahelian acacia savanna lake chad flooded savanna east saharan montane xeric woodlands south saharan steppe and woodlands and tibesti jebel uweinat montane xeric woodlands 62 tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds reptiles and large mammals major rivers the chari logone and their tributaries flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into lake chad 56 63 each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses chad from south to north bringing a wet season that lasts from may to october in the south and from june to september in the sahel 64 variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones the sahara lies in the country s northern third yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres 2 0 in only occasional spontaneous palm groves survive all of them south of the tropic of cancer 57 the sahara gives way to a sahelian belt in central chad precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm 11 8 to 23 6 in per year in the sahel a steppe of thorny bushes mostly acacias gradually gives way to the south to east sudanian savanna yearly rainfall in this belt is over 900 mm 35 4 in 57 wildlife main article wildlife of chad an african bush elephant the animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones in the saharan region the only flora is the date palm groves of the oasis palms and acacia trees grow in the sahelian region the southern or sudanic zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing there are at least 134 species of mammals 509 species of birds 354 species of residents and 155 migrants and over 1 600 species of plants throughout the country 65 66 giraffe at the zakouma national park elephants lions buffalo hippopotamuses rhinoceroses giraffes antelopes leopards cheetahs hyenas and many species of snakes are found here although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century 65 67 elephant poaching particularly in the south in areas such as zakouma national park is a severe problem the small group of surviving west african crocodiles in the ennedi plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the sahara today 68 forest cover is around 3 of the total land area equivalent to 4 313 000 hectares ha of forest in 2020 down from 6 730 000 hectares ha in 1990 in 2020 naturally regenerating forest covered 4 293 000 hectares ha and planted forest covered 19 800 hectares ha for the year 2015 100 of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership 69 70 chad had a 2018 forest landscape integrity index mean score of 6 18 10 ranking it 83rd globally out of 172 countries 71 extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias baobab dates and palm trees this has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements populations of animals like lions leopards and rhino have fallen significantly 72 efforts have been made by the food and agriculture organization to improve relations between farmers agro pastoralists and pastoralists in the zakouma national park siniaka minia national park and aouk national park to promote sustainable development 73 as part of the national conservation effort more than 1 2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees which produce gum arabic and also from fruit trees 72 poaching is a serious problem in the country particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks suc...