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burbs and the commuter towns edit main article commuter town commuting has had a large impact on modern life it has allowed cities to grow to sizes that were previously not practical and it has led to the proliferation of suburbs many large cities or conurbations are surrounded by commuter belts also known as metropolitan areas commuter towns dormitory towns or bedroom communities the prototypical commuter lives in one of these areas and travels daily to work or to school in the core city as urban sprawl pushes further and further away from central business districts new businesses can appear in outlying cities leading to the existence of the reverse commuter who lives in a core city but works in the suburbs and to a type of secondary commuter who lives in a more distant exurb and works in the outlying city or industrial suburb depending on local taxation laws commuting can lead to significant issues with municipal finances commuters work in one municipality while residing in another as taxes are usually paid based on place of residence the suburbs receive tax revenue from economic activity occurring in the central city meanwhile commuters often also use public infrastructure of the central city outside the immediate work and commuting context one potential way to remedy the issue is to annex the commuter suburbs into the central city however depending on local laws this may be legally difficult or impossible or politically unpalatable another potential measure is for municipalities to receive equalization payments so that rich municipalities pay a certain share of their tax revenue to poor municipalities gender differences edit a uk study published in 2009 found that on average women suffer four times as much psychological stress from their work commute as men do 8 9 an indian study conducted in mangalore led by edmond fernandes stated that creating a gender sensitive commuter centric road safety policy requires to be developed to protect women while commuting as they felt stressed and scared to travel alone particularly at night 10 education edit institutions that have few dormitories or low or no student housing populations are called commuter schools in the united states like community colleges traffic edit main article traffic traffic jam in baltimore maryland most commuters travel at the same time of day resulting in the morning and evening rush hours with congestion on roads and public transport systems not designed or maintained well enough to cope with the peak demands as an example interstate 405 located in southern california is one of the busiest freeways in the united states commuters may sit up to two hours in traffic during rush hour construction work or collisions on the freeway distract and slow down commuters contributing to even longer delays pollution edit cars carrying only one occupant use fuel and roads less efficiently than shared cars or public transport and increase traffic congestion commuting by car is a major factor contributing to air pollution carpool lanes can help commuters reach their destinations more quickly encourage people to socialize and spend time together while reducing air pollution some governments and employers have introduced employee travel reduction programs that encourage such alternatives as carpooling and remote work some are also carpooling using internet sites to save money alternatives like personal rapid transit have also been proposed to reap the energy efficiency benefits of a mass transit system while maintaining the speed and convenience of individual transport traffic emissions such as from cars and trucks also contribute 11 airborne by products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities 12 13 14 15 the major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide co 16 17 nitrogen oxides no and no x 18 19 20 volatile organic compounds 17 18 sulfur dioxide 17 and hydrocarbons 17 hydrocarbons are the main components of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel these molecules react with sunlight heat ammonia moisture and other compounds to form the noxious vapours ground level ozone and particles that comprise smog 17 18 electric rail based options like trams commuter rail s bahn or subways drastically reduce pollution in urban areas 21 as well as overall as electric traction is much more efficient than internal combustion engines however especially in the confined space of underground metro stations localized air pollution from particulate matter produced by wear and tear on breaks wheels rails etc can reach significant and potentially harmful levels 22 23 social trends edit commuting trends in the united states edit commuting times and patterns in us cities 2023 us census data in the united states the census bureau s american community survey acs collects data on commuting times allowing an analysis of average commute time by industry location and vehicle according to the 2014 acs the average commute time for adults in the united states was 26 8 minutes the occupations with the longest commutes were construction and mining 33 4 minutes computer science and math 31 8 and business operations specialists 30 2 while those in the military had the shortest commute 21 in general urban and suburban workers in the us have similar commute times about 30 minutes while rural workers have significantly shorter commutes 22 6 minutes in the us over 90 of workers commute by car while about 5 commute by public transportation 24 statistical models 25 indicate that in addition to demographics and work duration commute time is one of the most important determinants of discretionary time allocation by individuals commuting college students edit the number of students who commute to college continues to increase significantly as the years go by from 1996 to 2006 alone the percentage of undergraduate students who commuted to campus began to increase at a rate of 30 to 50 26 by 2009 the percentage of students in the united states who commute to college or university was 85 27 in a study involving 10 universities in canada 61 of students reported that their commute was a challenge to campus participation while 30 perceived it as a barrier to academic success factors influencing satisfaction included commute mode duration travel attitudes and campus type notably 72 of students had one way commutes of one hour or less 22 had commutes lasting between 60 and 90 minutes and 9 faced commutes exceeding 90 minutes 28 commuting and the scarcity of local employment edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed september 2023 learn how and when to remove this message commuting is often made necessary due to local employment market factors which may stem from the decline of manufacturing i e in cities where large manufacturing employers have either closed or laid off workers with no other employers to absorb that loss and in general the sheer lack of local employment more specifically wages from local employers are often insufficient for a worker household to sustain itself as a result the needs of worker households must be sustained and this leads to a wider field of job search beyond a local area to the next nearest city or metropolitan area resulting in the requirement for commuting hence in areas where little or no transit options exist that can facilitate a journey to work to meet the requirements of a worker schedule the use of a car is therefore made necessary this is a personal choice driven by financial need social and health implications of commuting edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed september 2023 learn how and when to remove this message since commuting largely stems from a need to travel outside a home community to sustain a household income while facing a bleak local employment market this comes with additional social and health implications first there is the increased risk of injury and accident while driving as distance and time in the vehicle increases which is generally observed when operating a vehicle fatigue and hazardous road conditions add to this risk second while income from employment is greater in other cities stress from commuting factors become a factor for personal health ironically stress from having to locate employment or being placed in a low income situation might lead to a similar outcome however this is dichotomous with the satisfaction of a sustainable income and good employment which is clearly the goal of an individual who is faced with commuting research has found that cities hosting large numbers of inbound commuters tend to experience higher rates of property crime linking commuting patterns to urban crime 29 beyond physical stress long distance commuting is associated with a decrease as individuals have less time to engage on on campus activities research suggests that for every ten minutes added to a commute there is a decline in social connections and civic participation 30 see also edit commuter rail passenger rail transport services primarily within metropolitan areas commuter worker workers who commute from mexico to the us health and environmental effects of transport extreme commuting commuting that takes more than daily walking time of an average human hypermobility travel act of taking frequent trips marchetti s constant average commuting time motorcycle commuting reverse commute commute in an opposite direction from normal slugging informal carpools for commuting standing passenger passengers who remain standing during public transport student transport transport for children to and from schools and events transit oriented development urban planning prioritising transit urban planning technical process of land use and urban design references edit the definition of commuter dictionary com retrieved 4 february 2018 glossar statistik der bundesagentur für arbeit heblich stephan redding stephen j sturm daniel m november 2020 the making of the modern metropolis evidence from london the quarterly journal of economics 135 4 2059 2133 doi 10 1093 qje qjaa014 paumgarten nick 16 april 2007 there and back again the soul of the commuter the new yorker retrieved 9 october 2009 caves r w 2004 encyclopedia of the city routledge p 138 smoothly from harrow a compendium for the london commuter by chris moss blue guides 2013 john w frazier florence margai eugene tettey fio 2009 race and place equity issues in urban america avalon publishing isbn 9780786730544 walsh meghan ozy how a bad commute is worse for women than men pbs newshour 20 february 2015 roberts j hodgson r dolan p may 2009 it s driving her mad gender differences in the effects of commuting on psychological well being report fernandes edmond nirgude abhay naik poonam dsouza neevan shetty soumya april 2017 study of commuter problems and opinions in a fast developing coastal city of mangalore in india a gender perspective analysis international journal of health allied sciences 6 2 57 gale a493214027 clearing the air the surface transportation policy project 19 august 2003 archived from the original on 8 february 2007 retrieved 26 april 2007 epa tools available as summer smog season starts press release boston massachusetts united states environmental protection agency 30 april 2008 cite press release cs1 maint deprecated archival service link sprawl report 2001 measuring vehicle contribution to smog sierra club 2001 archived from the original on 15 november 2001 retrieved 15 january 2017 camic caroline mericle david muelly michael taranto mindy franklin neil sonak vikas 1999 smog causes the environment a global challenge thinkquest archived from the original on 19 january 2001 retrieved 25 october 2013 smog who does it hurt what you need to know about ozone and your health pdf united states environmental protection agency july 1999 epa 452 k 99 001 archived from the original pdf on 22 june 2013 state and county emission summaries carbon monoxide air emission sources united states environmental protection agency 25 october 2013 1 2 3 4 5 motor vehicle pollution queensland government 4 april 2013 archived from the original on 5 december 2019 retrieved 15 january 2017 1 2 3 health nitrogen dioxide united states environmental protection agency 14 february 2013 cite web cs1 maint deprecated archival service link the regional transport of ozone new epa rulemaking on nitrogen oxide emissions epa 456 f 98 006 pdf united states environmental protection agency september 1998 archived from the original pdf on 10 november 2001 state and county emission summaries nitrogen oxides air emission sources united states environmental protection agency 25 october 2013 cite web cs1 maint deprecated archival service link gendron carrier nicolas gonzalez navarro marco polloni stefano turner matthew a january 2022 subways and urban air pollution american economic journal applied economics 14 1 164 196 doi 10 1257 app 20180168 pmc 9838121 pmid 36643023 wang shunyao qin tianchen tu ran li tianyuan chen gang i green david c zhang xin feng jialiang liu haobing hu ming fu qingyan august 2024 indoor air quality in subway microenvironments pollutant characteristics adverse health impacts and population inequity environment international 190 108873 bibcode 2024enint 19008873w doi 10 1016 j envint 2024 108873 pmid 39024827 passi amit nagendra s m shiva maiya m p july 2021 characteristics of indoor air quality in underground metro stations a critical review building and environment 198 107907 bibcode 2021buenv 19807907p doi 10 1016 j buildenv 2021 107907 kopf dan 23 february 2016 which professions have the longest commutes pricenomics retrieved 10 march 2016 bhat chandra r misra rajul may 1999 discretionary activity time allocation of individuals between in home and out of home and between weekdays and weekends transportation 26 2 193 229 bibcode 1999trans 26 193b doi 10 1023 a 1005192230485 understanding and addressing commuter student needs j patrick biddix p 80 he fanny 2019 undergraduate commuter students challenges and struggles journal of student affairs 15 43 49 eric ej1341616 taylor ryan mitra raktim july 2021 commute satisfaction and its relationship to post secondary students campus participation and success transportation research part d transport and environment 96 102890 bibcode 2021trpd 9602890t doi 10 1016 j trd 2021 102890 puttock simon barros umberto pinheiro diego oliveira marcos 2025 larger cities more commuters more crime the role of inter city commuting in the scaling of urban crime crime science 14 19 doi 10 1186 s40163 025 00264 8 hdl 1871 1 ee4d967a d567 4606 89f6 8adb7ffcb48d oberle monika 2016 robert d putnam bowling alone the collapse and revival of american communit...