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eories to defame the treaty of lausanne an important peace treaty for the country and the republic s founder kemal atatürk 179 180 another example is the sèvres syndrome a reference to the treaty of sèvres of 1920 a popular belief in turkey that dangerous internal and external enemies especially the west are conspiring to weaken and carve up the turkish republic 181 united states main article conspiracy theories in united states politics the historian richard hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout u s history in his 1964 essay the paranoid style in american politics bernard bailyn s classic the ideological origins of the american revolution 1967 notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in north america during the time preceding the american revolution conspiracism labels people s attitudes and the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion 182 harry g west and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the u s believes in conspiracy theories west also compares those theories to hypernationalism and religious fundamentalism 183 184 theologian robert jewett and philosopher john shelton lawrence attribute the enduring popularity of conspiracy theories in the u s to the cold war mccarthyism and counterculture rejection of authority they state that among both the left wing and right wing there remains a willingness to use real events such as soviet plots inconsistencies in the warren report and the 9 11 attacks to support the existence of unverified and ongoing large scale conspiracies 185 in his studies of american political demonology historian michael paul rogin too analyzed this paranoid style of politics that has occurred throughout american history conspiracy theories frequently identify an imaginary subversive group that is supposedly attacking the nation and requires the government and allied forces to engage in harsh extra legal repression of those threatening subversives rogin cites examples from the red scares of 1919 to mccarthy s anti communist campaign in the 1950s and more recently fears of immigrant hordes invading the u s unlike hofstadter rogin saw these countersubversive fears as frequently coming from those in power and dominant groups instead of from the dispossessed unlike robert jewett rogin blamed not the counterculture but america s dominant culture of liberal individualism and the fears it stimulated to explain the periodic eruption of irrational conspiracy theories 186 the watergate scandal has also been used to bestow legitimacy to other conspiracy theories with richard nixon himself commenting that it served as a rorschach ink blot which invited others to fill in the underlying pattern 61 historian kathryn s olmsted cites three reasons why americans are prone to believing in government conspiracy theories genuine government overreach and secrecy during the cold war such as watergate the tuskegee syphilis experiment project mkultra and the cia s assassination attempts on fidel castro in collaboration with mobsters precedent set by official government sanctioned conspiracy theories for propaganda such as claims of german infiltration of the u s during world war ii or the debunked claim that saddam hussein played a role in the 9 11 attacks distrust fostered by the government s spying on and harassment of dissenters such as the sedition act of 1918 cointelpro and as part of various red scares 187 alex jones referenced numerous conspiracy theories for convincing his supporters to endorse ron paul over mitt romney in the 2012 republican party presidential primaries and donald trump over hillary clinton in the 2016 united states presidential election 188 189 into the 2020s the qanon conspiracy theory alleges that trump is fighting against a deep state cabal of child sex abusing and satan worshipping democrats 37 38 190 191 192 193 see also apophenia tendency to perceive connections between unrelated things big lie propaganda technique conspiracy fiction subgenre of thriller fiction disinformation deliberately misleading information fake news false information presented as news fringe theory idea which departs from accepted scholarship in the field furtive fallacy informal fallacy of emphasis list of conspiracy theories philosophy of conspiracy theories branch of academic study propaganda communication used to influence opinion pseudohistory pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort historical record pseudoscience unscientific claims presented as scientific references informational notes birchall 2006 w e can appreciate conspiracy theory as a unique form of popular knowledge or interpretation and address what this might mean for any knowledge we produce about it or how we interpret it 94 66 birchall 2006 what we quickly discover is that it becomes impossible to map conspiracy theory and academic discourse onto a clear illegitimate legitimate divide 94 72 barkun 2003 the essence of conspiracy beliefs lies in attempts to delineate and explain evil at their broadest conspiracy theories view history as controlled by massive demonic forces for our purposes a conspiracy belief is the belief that an organization made up of individuals or groups was or is acting covertly to achieve a malevolent end 126 citations 1 2 3 barkun michael 2003 a culture of conspiracy apocalyptic visions in contemporary america berkeley university of california press pp 3 4 issitt micah main carlyn 2014 hidden religion the greatest mysteries and symbols of the world s religious beliefs abc clio isbn 978 1 61069 478 0 1 2 harambam jaron aupers stef august 2021 from the unbelievable to the undeniable epistemological pluralism or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims european journal of cultural studies 24 4 990 1008 doi 10 1177 1367549419886045 hdl 11245 1 7716b88d 4e3f 49ee 8093 253ccb344090 goertzel ted december 1994 belief in conspiracy theories political psychology 15 4 731 742 doi 10 2307 3791630 jstor 3791630 explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups conspiracy theory oxford english dictionary online ed oxford university press subscription or participating institution membership required the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties spec a belief that some covert but influential agency typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent is responsible for an unexplained event brotherton robert french christopher c pickering alan d 2013 measuring belief in conspiracy theories the generic conspiracist beliefs scale frontiers in psychology 4 279 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2013 00279 pmc 3659314 pmid 23734136 s2cid 16685781 a conspiracist belief can be described as the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable additional sources aaronovitch david 2009 voodoo histories the role of the conspiracy theory in shaping modern history jonathan cape p 253 isbn 978 0 224 07470 4 retrieved 17 august 2019 it is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of occam s razor to their arguments brotherton robert french christopher c 2014 belief in conspiracy theories and susceptibility to the conjunction fallacy applied cognitive psychology 28 2 238 248 doi 10 1002 acp 2995 a conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people jonason peter karl march evita springer jordan 2019 belief in conspiracy theories the predictive role of schizotypy machiavellianism and primary psychopathy plos one 14 12 e0225964 bibcode 2019ploso 1425964m doi 10 1371 journal pone 0225964 pmc 6890261 pmid 31794581 conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs and generally implicate a malevolent force e g a government body or secret society involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal thresher andrews christopher 2013 an introduction into the world of conspiracy pdf psypag quarterly 1 88 5 8 doi 10 53841 bpspag 2013 1 88 5 s2cid 255932379 archived from the original pdf on 13 august 2015 retrieved 12 september 2015 conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event they assume everything is intended with malignity crucially they are also epistemically self insulating in their construction and arguments 1 2 3 byford jovan 2011 conspiracy theories a critical introduction houndmills basingstoke hampshire palgrave macmillan isbn 978 0 230 34921 6 oclc 802867724 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 andrade gabriel april 2020 medical conspiracy theories cognitive science and implications for ethics pdf medicine health care and philosophy 23 3 505 518 doi 10 1007 s11019 020 09951 6 pmc 7161434 pmid 32301040 s2cid 215787658 archived pdf from the original on 8 may 2020 retrieved 7 october 2021 1 2 3 4 5 barkun michael october 2016 campion vincent véronique renard jean bruno eds conspiracy theories as stigmatized knowledge diogenes 62 3 4 114 120 doi 10 1177 0392192116669288 lccn 55003452 s2cid 152217672 1 2 brotherton robert 2013 towards a definition of conspiracy theory pdf psypag quarterly 1 88 9 14 doi 10 53841 bpspag 2013 1 88 9 s2cid 141788005 archived from the original pdf on 7 october 2013 a conspiracy theory is not merely one candidate explanation among other equally plausible alternatives rather the label refers to a claim which runs counter to a more plausible and widely accepted account conspiratorial beliefs are invariably at odds with the mainstream consensus among scientists historians or other legitimate judges of the claim s veracity douglas karen m sutton robbie m 12 april 2011 does it take one to know one endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire pdf british journal of social psychology 10 3 544 552 doi 10 1111 j 2044 8309 2010 02018 x lccn 81642357 oclc 475047529 pmid 21486312 s2cid 7318352 archived pdf from the original on 3 november 2018 retrieved 8 may 2024 1 2 keeley brian l march 1999 of conspiracy theories the journal of philosophy 96 3 109 126 doi 10 2307 2564659 jstor 2564659 lewandowsky stephan gignac gilles e oberauer klaus 2 october 2013 denson tom ed the role of conspiracist ideation and worldviews in predicting rejection of science plos one 8 10 e75637 bibcode 2013ploso 875637l doi 10 1371 journal pone 0075637 pmc 3788812 pmid 24098391 1 2 barkun michael 2011 chasing phantoms reality imagination and homeland security since 9 11 chapel hill university of north carolina press p 10 swami viren 6 august 2012 social psychological origins of conspiracy theories the case of the jewish conspiracy theory in malaysia frontiers in psychology 3 london uk 280 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2012 00280 pmc 3412387 pmid 22888323 radnitz scott 2021 citizen cynics how people talk and think about conspiracy revealing schemes university of washington oxford university press pp 153 172 doi 10 1093 oso 9780197573532 003 0009 isbn 978 0 19 757353 2 retrieved 17 may 2022 jolley daniel douglas karen m 20 february 2014 the effects of anti vaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions plos one 9 2 e89177 university of kent bibcode 2014ploso 989177j doi 10 1371 journal pone 0089177 pmc 3930676 pmid 24586574 1 2 freeman daniel bentall richard p 29 march 2017 the concomitants of conspiracy concerns social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 52 5 595 604 doi 10 1007 s00127 017 1354 4 pmc 5423964 pmid 28352955 1 2 barron david morgan kevin towell tony altemeyer boris swami viren november 2014 associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation pdf personality and individual differences 70 156 159 doi 10 1016 j paid 2014 06 040 dead link douglas karen m sutton robbie m 12 april 2011 does it take one to know one endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire pdf british journal of social psychology 10 3 544 552 doi 10 1111 j 2044 8309 2010 02018 x pmid 21486312 s2cid 7318352 archived pdf from the original on 3 november 2018 retrieved 28 december 2018 brüne m basilowski m bömmer i juckel g assion h j 2010 machiavellianism and executive functioning in patients with delusional disorder psychological reports 106 1 205 215 doi 10 2466 pr0 106 1 205 215 pmid 20402445 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 thresher andrews christopher 2013 an introduction into the world of conspiracy pdf psypag quarterly 1 88 5 8 doi 10 53841 bpspag 2013 1 88 5 s2cid 255932379 archived from the original pdf on 13 august 2015 retrieved 12 september 2015 1 2 sutton robbie m douglas karen m 2020 conspiracy theories and the conspiracy mindset implications for political ideology current opinion in behavioral sciences 34 118 122 doi 10 1016 j cobeha 2020 02 015 s2cid 214735855 1 2 3 4 douglas karen m sutton robbie m january 2023 fiske susan t ed what are conspiracy theories a definitional approach to their correlates consequences and communication annual review of psychology 74 271 298 doi 10 1146 annurev psych 032420 031329 oclc 909903176 pmid 36170672 s2cid 252597317 dean signe 23 october 2017 conspiracy theorists really do see the world differently new study shows science alert retrieved 17 june 2020 sloat sarah 17 october 2017 conspiracy theorists have a fundamental cognitive problem say scientists inverse retrieved 17 june 2020 hughes sara machan laura 2021 it s a conspiracy covid 19 conspiracies link to psychopathy machiavellianism and collective narcissism personality and individual differences 171 110559 doi 10 1016 j paid 2020 110559 pmc 8035125 pmid 33867616 van prooijen jan 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