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one physicist suggests that watson first proposed a one fluid theory which franklin then elaborated further and more influentially 39 a historian of science argues that watson missed a subtle difference between his ideas and franklin s so that watson misinterpreted his ideas as being similar to franklin s 40 in any case there was no animosity between watson and franklin and the franklin model of electrical action formulated in early 1747 eventually became widely accepted at that time 38 after franklin s work effluvia based explanations were rarely put forward 41 it is now known that the franklin model was fundamentally correct there is only one kind of electrical charge and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge 42 until 1800 it was only possible to study conduction of electric charge by using an electrostatic discharge in 1800 alessandro volta was the first to show that charge could be maintained in continuous motion through a closed path 43 in 1833 michael faraday sought to remove any doubt that electricity is identical regardless of the source by which it is produced 44 he discussed a variety of known forms which he characterized as common electricity e g static electricity piezoelectricity magnetic induction voltaic electricity e g electric current from a voltaic pile and animal electricity e g bioelectricity in 1838 faraday raised a question about whether electricity was a fluid or fluids or a property of matter like gravity he investigated whether matter could be charged with one kind of charge independently of the other 45 he came to the conclusion that electric charge was a relation between two or more bodies because he could not charge one body without having an opposite charge in another body 46 in 1838 faraday also put forth a theoretical explanation of electric force while expressing neutrality about whether it originates from one two or no fluids 47 he focused on the idea that the normal state of particles is to be nonpolarized and that when polarized they seek to return to their natural nonpolarized state in developing a field theory approach to electrodynamics starting in the mid 1850s james clerk maxwell stops considering electric charge as a special substance that accumulates in objects and starts to understand electric charge as a consequence of the transformation of energy in the field 48 this pre quantum understanding considered magnitude of electric charge to be a continuous quantity even at the microscopic level 48 role of charge in static electricity edit static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium an electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects electrification by sliding edit further information triboelectric effect when a piece of glass and a piece of resin neither of which exhibit any electrical properties are rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact they still exhibit no electrical properties when separated they attract each other a second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena the two pieces of glass repel each other each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin the two pieces of resin repel each other this attraction and repulsion is an electrical phenomenon and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be electrified or electrically charged bodies may be electrified in many other ways as well as by sliding the electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin the glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts if a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does that is if it repels the glass and attracts the resin the body is said to be vitreously electrified and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be resinously electrified all electrified bodies are either vitreously or resinously electrified an established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous electrification as positive and resinous electrification as negative the exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating them by opposite signs but the application of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagram to reckon positive distances towards the right hand 49 role of charge in electric current edit electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object the most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron the movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current in many situations it suffices to speak of the conventional current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction this macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations at the opposite extreme if one looks at the microscopic situation one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current including a flow of electrons a flow of electron holes that act like positive particles and both negative and positive particles ions or other charged particles flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma the direction of the conventional current in most metallic wires is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers i e the electrons conservation of electric charge edit main article charge conservation the total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself 50 4 this law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function the conservation of charge results in the charge current continuity equation more generally the rate of change in charge density ρ within a volume of integration v is equal to the area integral over the current density j through the closed surface s v which is in turn equal to the net current i d d t v ρ d v displaystyle frac d dt int _ v rho mathrm d v v displaystyle scriptstyle partial v j d s j d s cos θ i displaystyle mathbf j cdot mathrm d mathbf s int j mathrm d s cos theta i thus the conservation of electric charge as expressed by the continuity equation gives the result i d q d t displaystyle i frac mathrm d q mathrm d t the charge transferred between times t i displaystyle t_ mathrm i and t f displaystyle t_ mathrm f is obtained by integrating both sides q t i t f i d t displaystyle q int _ t_ mathrm i t_ mathrm f i mathrm d t where i is the net outward current through a closed surface and q is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface relativistic invariance edit aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism electric charge is a relativistic invariant this means that any particle that has electric charge q has the same electric charge regardless of how fast it is travelling this property has been experimentally verified by showing that the electric charge of one helium nucleus two protons and two neutrons bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds is the same as that of two deuterium nuclei one proton and one neutron bound together but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus 51 52 see also edit si electromagnetism units color charge partial charge positron or antielectron is an antiparticle or antimatter counterpart of the electron references edit electrostatics definition formulas britannica encyclopedia britannica archived from the original on 2025 10 16 retrieved 2026 02 11 1 2 2022 codata value elementary charge the nist reference on constants units and uncertainty nist may 2024 retrieved 2024 05 18 chabay ruth sherwood bruce 2015 matter and interactions 4th ed wiley p 867 chabay ruth sherwood bruce 2015 matter and interactions 4th ed wiley p 673 chabay ruth sherwood bruce 2015 matter and interactions 4th ed wiley p 942 rennie richard law jonathan eds 2019 quantum electrodynamics a dictionary of physics 8th ed oxford university press isbn 9780198821472 1 2 cipm 1946 resolution 2 bipm the international system of units pdf v4 01 9th ed international bureau of weights and measures jun 2026 isbn 978 92 822 2272 0 p 127 gambhir rs banerjee d durgapal mc 1993 foundations of physics vol 2 new delhi wiley eastern limited p 51 isbn 9788122405231 retrieved 10 october 2018 roller duane roller d h d 1954 the development of the concept of electric charge electricity from the greeks to coulomb cambridge ma harvard university press p 1 o grady patricia f 2002 thales of miletus the beginnings of western science and philosophy ashgate p 8 isbn 978 1351895378 1 2 lives of the eminent philosophers by diogenes laërtius book 1 24 roller duane roller d h d 1953 the prenatal history of electrical science american journal of physics 21 5 348 bibcode 1953amjph 21 343r doi 10 1119 1 1933449 roller duane roller d h d 1953 the prenatal history of electrical science american journal of physics 21 5 351 bibcode 1953amjph 21 343r doi 10 1119 1 1933449 roller duane roller d h d 1953 the prenatal history of electrical science american journal of physics 21 5 353 bibcode 1953amjph 21 343r doi 10 1119 1 1933449 1 2 roller duane roller d h d 1953 the prenatal history of electrical science american journal of physics 21 5 356 bibcode 1953amjph 21 343r doi 10 1119 1 1933449 roche j j 1998 the mathematics of measurement london the athlone press p 62 isbn 978 0387915814 roller duane roller d h d 1954 the development of 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perspective westport ct greenwood press p 27 baigrie brian 2007 electricity and magnetism a historical perspective westport ct greenwood press p 28 heilbron j l 1979 electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries a study of early modern physics university of california press p 248 isbn 978 0 520 03478 5 baigrie brian 2007 electricity and magnetism a historical perspective westport ct greenwood press p 35 roller duane roller d h d 1954 the development of the concept of electric charge electricity from the greeks to coulomb cambridge ma harvard university press p 40 two kinds of electrical fluid vitreous and resinous 1733 charles françois de cisternay dufay 1698 1739 archived 2009 05 26 at the wayback machine sparkmuseum com wangsness roald k 1986 electromagnetic fields 2nd ed new york wiley p 40 isbn 0 471 81186 6 heilbron j l 1979 electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries a study of early modern physics university of california press pp 280 289 isbn 978 0 520 03478 5 heilbron john 2003 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