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health occupational or recreational reasons e g horse riding 8 9 although many women chose to wear trousers and other traditional male attire in public without having a permit 10 sand obtained a permit in 1831 11 justifying her clothing as being less expensive and far more robust than the typical dress of a noblewoman at the time in addition to being comfortable sand s male attire enabled her to circulate more freely in paris than most of her female contemporaries and gave her increased access to venues that barred women even those of her social standing 12 13 sand s smoking tobacco in public was also considered scandalous neither peerage nor gentry had yet sanctioned the free indulgence by women of such a habit especially in public although franz liszt s paramour marie d agoult affected this as well smoking large cigars citation needed while some contemporaries were critical of her comportment many people accepted her behaviour until they became shocked by the subversive tone of her novels 4 those who found her writing admirable were not bothered by her ambiguous or rebellious public behaviour in 1831 at the age of 27 she chose her pseudonym george sand sand was derived from the name of her lover and fellow writer jules sandeau as the pair had previously co authored a novel under the pseudonym j sand she added george to complete the name and distinguish it from sandeau s removing the final s from the usual french spelling of the name to heighten its ambiguity as a pseudonym victor hugo commented george sand cannot determine whether she is male or female i entertain a high regard for all my colleagues but it is not my place to decide whether she is my sister or my brother 14 portrait of george sand by thomas sully 1826 similarly gender appears to be ambiguous in sand s own perspective when writing first person memoirs or essays including letters and journals sand s language sometimes speaks to modern explorations of gender ambiguity in the consistent use of a first person male persona 15 used to describe sand s own experiences and identity in masculine terms however when writing an autobiography of the author s youth the person described is a girl woman whose descriptions aligns with her legal designation as la demoiselle aurora 16 sand s friends and peers likewise alternate between using masculine or female adjectives and pronouns depending on the situation for instance in reviewing the collected letters of sand s lover chopin 17 one finds her consistently addressed as either mme sand or more familiarly as george either way she is referred to with feminine pronouns and positioned as the lady of the house 17 202 when referring to their domestic life together however when speaking of sand as a public rather than a private figure even those who clearly knew or even referenced the writer s sex also tended to apply masculine terms when speaking of their role as an author for instance jules janin describes sand as the king of novelists ie le roi des romanciers modernes 15 rather than as the queen likewise flaubert refers to sand as being a dear master of their shared art ie chère maitre using a masculine title to denote the masculine professional role but a grammatically feminine adjective that acknowledges their legal or grammatical sex 15 notable relationships edit casimir dudevant sand s husband in the 1860s in 1822 at the age of eighteen sand married françois casimir dudevant 7 an out of wedlock son of baron jean françois dudevant she and dudevant had two children maurice and solange 1828 1899 in 1825 she had an intense but perhaps platonic affair with the young lawyer aurélien de sèze 18 in early 1831 she left her husband and entered upon a four or five year period of romantic rebellion in 1835 she was legally separated from dudevant and took custody of their children 19 sand had romantic affairs with the novelist jules sandeau 1831 the polish russian prince norbert przanowski february 1832 summer 1833 the writer prosper mérimée the dramatist alfred de musset summer 1833 march 1835 louis chrysostome michel the actor pierre françois bocage the writer charles didier the novelist félicien mallefille the politician louis blanc and the composer frédéric chopin 1837 1847 20 later in her life she corresponded with gustave flaubert and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference they eventually became close friends sand was also close friends with the actress marie dorval whether they were physically involved or not has been debated yet never verified 21 22 the two met in january 1833 after sand wrote dorval a letter of appreciation following one of her performances sand wrote about dorval including many passages where she is described as smitten with dorval only those who know how differently we were made can realize how utterly i was in thrall to her god had given her the power to express what she felt she was beautiful and she was simple she had never been taught anything but there was nothing she did not know by instinct i can find no words with which to describe how cold and incomplete my own nature is i can express nothing there must be a sort of paralysis in my brain which prevents what i feel from ever finding a form through which it can achieve communication when she appeared upon the stage with her drooping figure her listless gait her sad and penetrating glance i can say only that it was as though i were looking at an embodied spirit 23 theater critic gustave planche reportedly warned sand to stay away from dorval likewise count alfred de vigny dorval s lover from 1831 to 1838 warned the actress to stay away from sand whom he referred to as that damned lesbian 22 in 1840 dorval played the lead in a play written by sand titled cosima and the two women collaborated on the script however the play was not well received and was cancelled after only seven showings sand and dorval remained close friends for the remainder of dorval s lifetime chopin edit sand spent the winter of 1838 1839 with frédéric chopin in mallorca at the formerly abandoned carthusian monastery of valldemossa 24 the trip to mallorca was described in her un hiver à majorque a winter in majorca first published in 1841 25 chopin was already ill with incipient tuberculosis at the beginning of their relationship and spending a cold and wet winter in mallorca where they could not get proper lodgings exacerbated his symptoms 26 sand sews while chopin plays piano in a hypothetical reconstruction of delacroix s 1838 painting portrait of frédéric chopin and george sand sand and chopin also spent many long summers at sand s country manor in nohant from 1839 to 1846 skipping only 1840 27 there chopin wrote many of his most famous works including the fantaisie in f minor op 49 piano sonata no 3 op 58 and the ballade no 3 op 47 in her novel lucrezia floriani sand is said to have used chopin as a model for a sickly eastern european prince named karol he is cared for by a middle aged actress past her prime lucrezia who suffers greatly through her affection for karol 28 though sand claimed not to have made a cartoon out of chopin the book s publication and widespread readership may have exacerbated their later antipathy towards each other after chopin s death sand burned much of their correspondence leaving only four surviving letters between the two 29 three of the letters were published in the classiques garnier series in 1968 29 alexandre manceau 1817 1865 long time lover of george sand from 1849 to 1865 another breach was caused by chopin s attitude toward sand s daughter solange 30 chopin continued to be cordial to solange after she and her husband auguste clésinger fell out with sand over money sand took chopin s support of solange to be extremely disloyal and confirmation that chopin had always loved solange 31 sand s son maurice disliked chopin maurice wanted to establish himself as the man of the estate and did not wish to have chopin as a rival maurice removed two sentences from a letter sand wrote to chopin when he published it because he felt that sand was too affectionate toward chopin and solange 29 chopin and sand separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons 32 chopin was never asked back to nohant in 1848 he returned to paris from a tour of the united kingdom to die at the place vendôme in 1849 george sand was notably absent from his funeral 33 in december 1849 maurice invited the engraver alexandre manceau to celebrate christmas in nohant george sand fell passionately in love with manceau he became her lover companion and secretary and they stayed together for fifteen years until his death 34 last years and death edit george sand had no choice but to write for the theater because of financial difficulties in nohant she even exercised the functions of village doctor having studied anatomy and herbal remedies with a doctor deschartres but she was not confined to nohant and travelled in france and in particular with her great friend charles robin duvernet fr at the château du petit coudray or abroad in 1864 sand took residence in palaiseau together with her beloved manceau for a couple of months where she tended him in his decline 34 sand died at nohant near châteauroux in france s indre département on 8 june 1876 at the age of 71 she was buried in the private graveyard behind the chapel at nohant vic 35 in 2003 plans that her remains be moved to the panthéon in paris resulted in controversy 36 37 career and politics edit sand s first literary efforts were collaborations with the writer jules sandeau they published several stories together signing them jules sand sand s first published novel rose et blanche 1831 was written in collaboration with sandeau 38 she subsequently adopted for her first independent novel indiana 1832 the pen name that made her famous george sand 39 george sand by charles louis gratia c 1835 by the age of 27 sand was europe s most popular writer of either gender 19 more popular than both victor hugo and honoré de balzac in england in the 1830s and 1840s 4 and she remained immensely popular as a writer throughout her lifetime and long after her death early in her career her work was in high demand by 1836 the first of several compendia of her writings was published in 24 volumes 40 41 in total four separate editions of her complete works were published during her lifetime in 1880 her children sold the rights to her literary estate for 125 000 francs 40 equivalent to 36 kg of gold or 1 3 million 2015 us dollars 42 drawing from her childhood experiences of the countryside sand wrote the pastoral novels la mare au diable 1846 françois le champi 1847 1848 la petite fadette 1849 and les beaux messieurs de bois doré 1857 43 a winter in majorca described the period that she and chopin spent on that island from 1838 to 1839 her other novels include indiana 1832 lélia 1833 mauprat 1837 le compagnon du tour de france 1840 consuelo 1842 1843 and le meunier d angibault 1845 theatre pieces and autobiographical pieces include histoire de ma vie 1855 elle et lui 1859 about her affair with musset journal intime posthumously published in 1926 and correspondence sand often performed her theatrical works in her small private theatre at the nohant estate 44 political views edit sand also wrote literary criticism and political texts in her early life she sided with the poor and working class as well as championing women s rights when the 1848 revolution began she was an ardent republican sand started her own newspaper published in a workers co operative 45 politically she became very active after 1841 and the leaders of the day often consulted with her and took her advice she was a member of the provisional government of 1848 issuing a series of fiery manifestos while many republicans were imprisoned or went to exile after louis napoléon bonaparte s coup d état of december 1851 she remained in france maintained an ambiguous relationship with the new regime and negotiated pardons and reduced sentences for her friends 19 sand was known for her implication and writings during the paris commune of 1871 where she took a position for the versailles assembly against the communards urging them to take violent action against the rebels 46 she was appalled by the violence of the paris commune writing the horrible adventure continues they ransom they threaten they arrest they judge they have taken over all the city halls all the public establishments they re pillaging the munitions and the food supplies 47 criticism edit george sand was an idea she has a unique place in our age others are great men she was a great woman victor hugo les funérailles de george sand 48 sand s writing was immensely popular during her lifetime and she was highly respected by the literary and cultural elite in france victor hugo in the eulogy he gave at her funeral said the lyre was within her 49 in this country whose law is to complete the french revolution and begin that of the equality of the sexes being a part of the equality of men a great woman was needed it was necessary to prove that a woman could have all the manly gifts without losing any of her angelic qualities be strong without ceasing to be tender george sand proved it victor hugo les funérailles de george sand eugène delacroix was a friend and respected her literary gifts 50 flaubert was an unabashed admirer 51 honoré de balzac who knew sand once said that if someone thought she wrote badly it was because their own standards of criticism were inadequate he also noted that her treatment of imagery in her works showed that her writing had an exceptional subtlety having the ability to virtually put the image in the word 52 53 alfred de vigny referred to her as sappho 49 not all of her contemporaries admired her or her writing poet charles baudelaire was one contemporary critic of george sand 54 she is stupid heavy and garrulous her ideas on morals have the same depth of judgment and delicacy of feeling as those of janitresses and kept women the fact that there are men who could become enamoured of this slut is indeed a proof of the abasement of the men of this generation 55 influences on literature edit fyodor dostoevsky read widely in the numerous novels of george sand and translated her la dernière aldini in 1844 only to learn that it had already been published in russian 56 in his mature period he expressed an ambiguous attitude towards her for instance in his novella notes from underground the narrator refers to sentiments he expresses as i launch off at that point into european inexplicably lofty subtleties à la george sand 57 the english poet elizabeth barrett browning 1806 61 wrote two poems to george sand a desire 1853 and to george sand a recognition the american poet walt whitman cited sand s novel consuelo as a personal favorite and the sequel to this novel la comtesse de rudolstadt contains at least a couple of passages that appear to have had a very direct influence...