Meta tags:

Headings (most frequently used words):

alphabet, greek, language, contents, history, geographic, distribution, characteristics, loanwords, in, other, languages, classification, writing, system, example, text, see, also, notes, footnotes, references, further, reading, external, links, periods, diglossia, historical, unity, official, status, phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, linear, cypriot, syllabary, latin, hebrew, arabic, tree, nouns, and, adjectives, verbs, diacritics, punctuation,

Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (575), greek (392), and (302), #language (167), languages (98), ancient (72), modern (71), for (58), from (54), with (51), that (49), isbn (48), was (41), has (40), 978 (39), greece (37), edit (36), european (35), this (33), alphabet (33), also (33), are (32), history (29), official (29), other (27), used (27), been (27), macedonian (25), indo (25), university (24), phrygian (23), koine (22), century (22), turkish (21), new (21), hellenic (21), press (21), its (21), written (21), most (21), minority (20), latin (20), english (20), dialect (20), have (20), dialects (19), but (19), cambridge (19), eds (19), their (19), retrieved (18), see (18), articles (17), cyprus (17), world (17), words (17), cypriot (17), period (17), all (16), 2022 (16), turkey (16), mycenaean (16), classical (16), spoken (16), not (16), form (16), central (15), system (15), archived (15), which (15), use (14), eastern (14), byzantine (14), albanian (14), sign (14), europe (14), linear (14), writing (14), medieval (13), since (13), rights (13), sea (13), arabic (13), doric (13), related (13), original (13), sources (12), only (12), roman (12), italy (12), main (12), grammar (12), texts (12), between (12), some (12), article (12), wikipedia (11), script (11), albania (11), graeco (11), early (11), varieties (11), west (11), greeks (11), changes (11), empire (11), armenian (11), attic (11), syllabary (11), standard (11), many (11), oxford (11), crespo (11), into (11), 2026 (10), links (10), proto (10), pontic (10), question (10), human (10), hellenistic (10), southern (10), study (10), 2009 (10), both (10), today (10), giannakis (10), joseph (10), were (10), known (10), note (10), text (9), october (9), 2017 (9), ethnologue (9), portal (9), balkan (9), romani (9), literature (9), minorities (9), regions (9), among (9), western (9), phonology (9), origin (9), research (9), london (9), doi (9), renfrew (9), distribution (9), 2006 (9), they (9), these (9), one (9), group (9), 2015 (9), about (8), may (8), using (8), cs1 (8), pages (8), january (8), 1453 (8), republic (8), religion (8), cretan (8), cappadocian (8), diacritics (8), east (8), culture (8), 2008 (8), mediterranean (8), family (8), first (8), age (8), gallo (8), romance (8), historical (8), forms (8), northwest (8), ionic (8), periods (8), vocabulary (8), help (8), linguistics (8), filos (8), gruyter (8), april (8), word (8), case (8), speaking (8), aljamiado (8), when (8), non (7), german (7), subscription (7), late (7), middle (7), antiquity (7), bulgarian (7), yevanic (7), greco (7), orthography (7), list (7), foreign (7), population (7), war (7), hebrew (7), south (7), linguistic (7), testament (7), encyclopedia (7), brian (7), recent (7), 2013 (7), 2003 (7), 2020 (7), 2018 (7), where (7), during (7), closely (7), morphological (7), sometimes (7), number (7), toggle (6), page (6), category (6), ipa (6), ukraine (6), ages (6), symbols (6), ionian (6), tsakonian (6), thessaloniki (6), communities (6), macedonia (6), union (6), aegean (6), 2001 (6), place (6), 1923 (6), scholars (6), muslims (6), wars (6), venetian (6), archaic (6), italic (6), italian (6), vernacular (6), accent (6), 2010 (6), learn (6), free (6), cite (6), york (6), speakers (6), routledge (6), emilio (6), georgios (6), present (6), morphology (6), chapter (6), van (6), beek (6), write (6), example (6), because (6), called (6), than (6), cultural (6), can (6), 2023 (6), widely (6), june (6), status (6), found (6), 18th (6), required (6), different (6), often (6), section (6), proper (6), syntax (6), view (5), additional (5), categories (5), external (5), references (5), iso (5), 639 (5), recorded (5), proposed (5), verb (5), calabria (5), united (5), national (5), 800 (5), constantinople (5), era (5), aromanian (5), katharevousa (5), art (5), athens (5), international (5), regional (5), state (5), government (5), areas (5), islands (5), north (5), kingdom (5), bronze (5), major (5), lombard (5), french (5), jewish (5), aeolic (5), studies (5), functions (5), people (5), being (5), information (5), more (5), england (5), 521 (5), 1997 (5), 1990 (5), introduction (5), variety (5), robert (5), treaty (5), lausanne (5), colin (5), time (5), olander (5), mark (5), gray (5), atkinson (5), tree (5), georgiev (5), 2014 (5), scientific (5), 2012 (5), how (5), past (5), pdf (5), diglossia (5), thus (5), even (5), largely (5), developed (5), christian (5), any (5), such (5), usage (5), oclc (5), very (5), considered (5), within (5), originally (5), now (5), black (5), evidence (5), what (5), loanwords (5), part (5), christianity (5), especially (5), years (5), there (5), subjunctive (5), term (5), does (5), significant (5), after (5), letters (5), syllabic (5), later (5), branch (5), separate (5), verbs (5), periphrastic (5), contents (4), search (4), code (4), under (4), agree (4), wikimedia (4), foundation (4), commons (4), september (4), wayback (4), link (4), uses (4), dead (4), containing (4), linguasphere (4), including (4), subject (4), romania (4), armenia (4), org (4), 300 (4), 1100 (4), millennium (4), church (4), 20th (4), origins (4), epirote (4), megleno (4), romanian (4), demotic (4), numerals (4), greeklish (4), religious (4), day (4), philosophy (4), life (4), jews (4), diaspora (4), exchange (4), municipalities (4), education (4), military (4), council (4), law (4), 2019 (4), protected (4), crete (4), ottoman (4), third (4), second (4), 330 (4), great (4), migrations (4), pre (4), prehistory (4), consensus (4), linguists (4), croatian (4), recognized (4), dictionaries (4), institute (4), center (4), achaean (4), library (4), machine (4), dictionary (4), online (4), entered (4), course (4), read (4), who (4), learning (4), tools (4), general (4), limited (4), peter (4), pronunciation (4), further (4), reading (4), panagiotis (4), identity (4), area (4), archaeological (4), s2cid (4), hooker (4), march (4), via (4), asia (4), publishing (4), universal (4), declaration (4), did (4), wrote (4), literary (4), probably (4), them (4), knowledge (4), hmml (4), july (4), became (4), little (4), far (4), lebanon (4), palestine (4), punctuation (4), balkans (4), current (4), brixhe (4), features (4), had (4), relative (4), however (4), review (4), remained (4), near (4), tradition (4), certain (4), set (4), over (4), ελληνικά (4), lingua (4), stages (4), genitive (4), kai (4), και (4), based (4), marks (4), vowels (4), earliest (4), phonological (4), together (4), expressed (4), nouns (4), constructions (4), singular (4), plural (4), person (4), adjectives (4), throughout (4), least (4), geographic (4), unity (4), dimotiki (4), hide (4), move (4), sidebar (4), subsection (4), topic (3), 225 (3), table (3), contact (3), available (3), terms (3), organization (3), inc (3), last (3), wikidata (3), date (3), ukrainian (3), december (3), object (3), sicily (3), hungary (3), country (3), apulia (3), states (3), 1600 (3), 3rd (3), league (3), perseus (3), old (3), orthodox (3), 19th (3), peloponnesian (3), music (3), media (3), ladino (3), maniot (3), romanization (3), cyrillization (3), braille (3), muslim (3), names (3), bridge (3), science (3), economic (3), issues (3), guard (3), dispute (3), coast (3), capital (3), court (3), 1910 (3), chios (3), epirus (3), points (3), overview (3), august (3), alexander (3), minoan (3), basic (3), topics (3), northern (3), griko (3), calabrian (3), italiot (3), valley (3), slavic (3), ladin (3), occitan (3), sardinian (3), russian (3), neo (3), speech (3), systems (3), large (3), woodhouse (3), three (3), support (3), comparative (3), 1972 (3), adams (3), publishers (3), longman (3), boston (3), john (3), guide (3), hatzopoulos (3), 1515 (3), issn (3), leiden (3), right (3), protection (3), berlin (3), 1987 (3), prehistoric (3), innovation (3), 1973 (3), company (3), problems (3), autochthonous (3), obrador (3), cursach (3), ligorio (3), lubotsky (3), vol (3), 1816 (3), ian (3), 2002 (3), 1976 (3), paul (3), data (3), times (3), vladimir (3), ivanov (3), 110 (3), dosuna (3), critical (3), william (3), minor (3), browning (3), 1983 (3), ashgate (3), 1982 (3), speak (3), though (3), christians (3), peninsula (3), our (3), much (3), although (3), few (3), could (3), identified (3), common (3), syria (3), extent (3), purposes (3), britannica (3), share (3), historic (3), suggest (3), point (3), basis (3), woodard (3), 190 (3), rather (3), independent (3), companion (3), established (3), position (3), here (3), papers (3), november (3), 2025 (3), several (3), nominal (3), still (3), nubian (3), another (3), before (3), disappeared (3), oldest (3), tablet (3), out (3), four (3), according (3), populations (3), census (3), traditionally (3), cases (3), dative (3), roots (3), catholic (3), meaning (3), would (3), acute (3), addition (3), vowel (3), remove (3), message (3), please (3), unsourced (3), material (3), challenged (3), removed (3), adding (3), citations (3), reliable (3), improve (3), attested (3), 15th (3), precursor (3), extinct (3), subgroup (3), order (3), productive (3), borrowings (3), objects (3), infinitive (3), instead (3), passive (3), perfective (3), perfect (3), future (3), inflectional (3), distinctions (3), show (3), development (3), across (3), characteristics (3), officially (3), russia (3), egypt (3), million (3), community (3), works (3), riots (3), traced (3), franca (3), possibly (3), native (3), statistics (2), legal (2), privacy (2), policy (2), you (2), profit (2), template (2), needing (2), maint (2), location (2), missing (2), publisher (2), content (2), dates (2), merging (2), short (2), description (2), georgia (2), israel (2), czech (2), control (2), 600 (2), flag (2), olympics (2), hockey (2), name (2), islam (2), tales (2), catholicism (2), school (2), thracian (2), thessalian (2), corruption (2), freedom (2), proverbs (2), arvanitika (2), australian (2), lesbian (2), theatre (2), units (2), theophany (2), independence (2), public (2), naming (2), immigration (2), water (2), metro (2), space (2), agency (2), crisis (2), companies (2), bank (2), administrative (2), social (2), nationalism (2), political (2), presidential (2), nations (2), relations (2), supreme (2), parliamentary (2), conference (2), mansion (2), special (2), constitutional (2), 1985 (2), 1862 (2), amendments (2), constitution (2), thrace (2), messenia (2), ioannina (2), euboea (2), acarnania (2), aetolia (2), extreme (2), renaissance (2), countries (2), schism (2), fall (2), despotate (2), migration (2), corinth (2), persian (2), dark (2), civilization (2), neolithic (2), either (2), rest (2), italo (2), linguist (2), dialectal (2), others (2), bavarian (2), triestine (2), serbian (2), serbo (2), arbëresh (2), friulian (2), rhaeto (2), piedmontese (2), romagnol (2), emilian (2), lecchese (2), comasco (2), legnanese (2), franco (2), provençal (2), catalan (2), latian (2), intermediate (2), tatar (2), pomak (2), himariote (2), romano (2), homeric (2), arcadocypriot (2), aryan (2), books (2), descriptions (2), lexicons (2), print (2), lexical (2), wiktionary (2), swadesh (2), february (2), taught (2), edu (2), com (2), wikiquote (2), berkeley (2), useful (2), wikivoyage (2), edition (2), book (2), 1995 (2), mallory (2), james (2), douglas (2), richard (2), 241 (2), horrocks (2), holton (2), david (2), mackridge (2), philippaki (2), warburton (2), irene (2), 415 (2), comprehensive (2), 329 (2), softening (2), obstruent (2), consonants (2), miltiades (2), 299 (2), consolidation (2), perspectives (2), introductory (2), 188 (2), tsitselikis (2), 287 (2), surviving (2), scheler (2), 1977 (2), schmidt (2), der (2), heidelberg (2), theory (2), crossland (2), birchall (2), 276 (2), 263 (2), proceedings (2), correlation (2), strata (2), model (2), ralli (2), hyllested (2), olsen (2), thorsø (2), lucien (2), phylogenetic (2), klein (2), jared (2), fritz (2), matthias (2), 054243 (2), handbook (2), turn (2), holm (2), hans (2), analysis (2), 2007 (2), russel (2), quentin (2), 439 (2), 1038 (2), 426 (2), bibcode (2), 435 (2), anatolian (2), 1981 (2), gamkrelidze (2), 116 (2), méndez (2), work (2), dawkins (2), halliday (2), 1916 (2), cappadocia (2), beekes (2), stephen (2), brill (2), babiniotis (2), 1992 (2), permanent (2), androutsopoulos (2), michael (2), aldershot (2), 249 (2), 221 (2), practice (2), discourse (2), alexiou (2), manchester (2), 192 (2), 297 (2), makes (2), grecophone (2), catholics (2), particular (2), examples (2), mainly (2), composed (2), seventeenth (2), until (2), tourkogianniotes (2), sometime (2), faith (2), given (2), important (2), rājnāma (2), manuscript (2), room (2), rite (2), manuscripts (2), vhmml (2), 2005 (2), unicode (2), bristol (2), 193 (2), harald (2), germany (2), glottolog (2), two (2), likely (2), single (2), end (2), conclusion (2), moreover (2), hypothesis (2), thraco (2), 239 (2), 1988 (2), authors (2), stage (2), closest (2), claude (2), roger (2), trudgill (2), edinburgh (2), change (2), 1999 (2), walter (2), 053081 (2), generally (2), suggests (2), roisman (2), worthington (2), chichester (2), malden (2), wiley (2), blackwell (2), macedonians (2), centuries (2), 4051 (2), 7936 (2), map (2), hamp (2), 285 (2), 1966 (2), alice (2), είναι (2), made (2), dominated (2), means (2), san (2), 2021 (2), elements (2), kingdoms (2), gradual (2), already (2), almost (2), rule (2), ethnicity (2), living (2), 2011 (2), small (2), aland (2), well (2), phoenician (2), modifying (2), characters (2), own (2), anthropology (2), encyclopædia (2), gree1276 (2), charter (2), expression (2), stated (2), except (2), armenians (2), codes (2), footnotes (2), suggested (2), traditional (2), terminology (2), nominative (2), accusative (2), notes (2), towards (2), come (2), same (2), happened (2), older (2), dating (2), presence (2), additionally (2), scribes (2), semicolon (2), principally (2), letter (2), monotonic (2), diaeresis (2), polytonic (2), breathing (2), initial (2), introduced (2), grave (2), decline (2), favor (2), pitch (2), lower (2), upper (2), consists (2), each (2), lowercase (2), final (2), sigma (2), approximately (2), represent (2), variant (2), existed (2), variants (2), similar (2), descendant (2), somewhat (2), 11th (2), inscription (2), deciphered (2), digamma (2), chi (2), higher (2), along (2), alone (2), refer (2), thought (2), intelligible (2), anatolia (2), classification (2), borrowed (2), include (2), etc (2), continue (2), includes (2), documented (2), subjects (2), prepositional (2), noun (2), counterparts (2), loss (2), pronouns (2), medio (2), active (2), indicative (2), imperative (2), optative (2), mood (2), imperfective (2), aorist (2), construction (2), dual (2), shows (2), fairly (2), stable (2), verbal (2), disuse (2), taken (2), formed (2), plosives (2), voiced (2), voiceless (2), earlier (2), diphthongs (2), structure (2), entire (2), attestation (2), relatively (2), alongside (2), gjirokastër (2), around (2), bulgaria (2), border (2), due (2), remain (2), argentina (2), africa (2), australia (2), various (2), biblical (2), green (2), highly (2), territories (2), hellenism (2), rome (2), predominant (2), bible (2), following (2), civilisation (2), homer (2), caucasus (2), salento (2), romanized (2), eliniˈka (2), elliniká (2), aaa (2), ell (2), county (2), appearance (2), upload (2), file (2), norsk (2), bahasa (2), коми (2), беларуская (2), log (2), create (2), account (2), donate (2), menu (2), add, mobile, cookie, statement, developers, conduct, safety, contacts, disclaimers, apply, site, registered, trademark, creative, attribution, sharealike, license, rendered, parsoid, edited, utc, hidden, webarchive, errors, permanently, plain, pronunciations, citing, phonos, extension, dmy, matches, fusional, https, index, php, title, greek_language, oldid, 1375199102, yale, lux, sweden, latvia, spain, japan, authority, databases, heritage, sites, orders, decorations, motto, flags, colours, coat, arms, anthem, rugby, 2004, 1906, 1896, ice, football, cricket, basketball, baseball, sport, wayside, shrine, vrykolakas, days, thymiaterion, sikhism, psychai, protestantism, nymph, centaur, satyr, bellerephon, theseus, orpheus, daedalus, oedipus, jason, odysseus, heracles, twelve, olympians, titans, primordial, deities, mythology, mount, athos, mormo, lamia, kallikantzaros, judaism, hypertimos, hinduism, calendarists, ecumenical, patriarchate, gello, fairy, timeline, contemporary, drosoulites, buddhism, atheism, aerico, revival, lore, punk, rock, rebetiko, zilia, tympano, tsampouna, trigono, tambourine, tambouras, souravli, santouri, salpinx, psaltery, phorminx, pan, flute, organo, lyre, laouto, harp, gaida, floghera, crotala, politiki, lyra, bouzouki, aulos, askomandoura, musical, instruments, skyladiko, laïko, hip, hop, nisiotika, heptanesian, folk, éntekhno, zervos, zeibekiko, tsamikos, tsakonikos, trata, syrtos, sousta, sirtaki, rougatsiarikos, pyrrhichios, proskinitos, pentozali, partalos, palamakia, ntames, metsovitikos, maniatikos, leventikos, pidikhtos, koftos, kerkiraikos, kastorianos, kangeli, kalamatianos, ikariotikos, hasapiko, geranos, gaitanaki, fisounis, dionysiakos, ballos, antikristos, angaliastos, georgis, dances, television, newspapers, internet, cinema, love, xinomavro, vilana, savatiano, robola, retsina, moschofilero, malvasia, malagousia, mandilaria, mavrodafni, limnio, kotsifali, athiri, assyrtiko, aidini, agiorgitiko, wine, heptanesean, souvlaki, sauces, tzatziki, tirokafteri, taramosalata, skordalia, taverna, ouzeri, kafenio, restaurants, pasta, hilopites, flomaria, gogges, meze, dakos, salad, tiropita, spanakopita, karydopita, galaktoboureko, bougatsa, amygdalopita, filo, mizithra, metsovone, manouri, ladotyri, kefalotyri, kasseri, graviera, feta, anthotyros, cheeses, drinks, frappé, coffee, tsikoudia, tsipouro, tentura, sideritis, rakomelo, ouzo, metaxa, mastika, dishes, desserts, vasilopita, spoon, sweets, pasteli, melomakarona, loukoumades, kourabiedes, koulourakia, halva, diples, breads, tsoureki, paximadi, lagana, kritsini, daktyla, cuisine, heptanese, castles, architecture, worry, beads, measurement, tsiknopempti, souliotic, songs, rouketopolemos, ohi, holidays, plate, smashing, hellenophobia, philhellenism, paideia, customs, mountza, mangas, carols, year, christmas, hospitality, hellenization, greektown, folklore, festivals, party, vraka, tsarouchi, perizoma, peplos, mariner, cap, himation, fustanella, exomis, chlamys, chiton, dress, concept, kingship, clean, monday, caryatid, anastenaria, expectancy, women, roma, slavophones, romanians, aromanians, arvanites, demographics, society, supply, sanitation, rio, antirrio, transportation, trade, unions, tourism, fair, telecommunications, taxation, subdivisions, gdp, merchant, marine, shipping, technology, rankings, railways, pensions, ports, laiki, agora, highways, miracle, monetary, fund, euro, coins, nuclear, renewable, energy, drachma, grexit, debt, electric, power, brands, banking, stock, airports, agriculture, economy, decentralized, administrations, divisions, anarchism, trotskyism, laocracy, socialism, pacifism, feminism, environmentalism, movements, enosis, megali, idea, hellenocentrism, venizelism, republicanism, liberalism, metaxism, fascism, monarchism, conservatism, ideologies, racism, scandals, prostitution, lgbt, abuses, smoking, obesity, hospitals, healthcare, universities, cannabis, abortion, tomb, unknown, soldier, evzones, navy, ranks, conscription, army, alliances, air, force, treaties, passport, nato, terrorism, imprisonment, mafia, crime, punishment, police, security, audit, judicial, parties, pasokification, constituencies, parataxis, nationality, elections, presidium, committees, speaker, parliament, presidents, legislature, maximos, prime, minister, president, gazette, cabinet, executive, 1965, 1917, 1843, 1986, 1975, 1911, 1864, 1844, 1827, 1822, constitutions, politics, parks, birds, mammals, forests, environmental, ecoregions, earthquakes, natural, disasters, climate, environment, libyan, myrtoan, icarian, rivers, lakes, coasts, volcanoes, plains, peninsulas, rhodopes, pindus, olympus, mountains, geology, caves, canyons, gorges, terrain, xanthi, rhodope, evros, sporades, trikala, magnesia, larissa, karditsa, thessaly, elis, achaea, laconia, corinthia, argolis, arcadia, peloponnese, samos, lesbos, lemnos, ikaria, thasos, serres, pieria, pella, kozani, kilkis, kavala, kastoria, imathia, grevena, florina, drama, chalkidiki, zakynthos, paxi, lefkada, kythira, kefalonia, ithaca, corfu, thesprotia, preveza, arta, kastellorizo, tilos, symi, rhodes, patmos, nisyros, leros, leipsoi, kos, kasos, karpathos, kalymnos, chalki, astypalaia, agathonisi, dodecanese, tinos, syros, santorini, paros, naxos, mykonos, milos, kythnos, kea, delos, andros, cyclades, lasithi, rethymno, heraklion, chania, saronic, phthiotis, phocis, evrytania, boeotia, attica, cities, borders, geography, polis, phanariotes, royal, kings, monarchy, inventions, discoveries, geographical, demographic, coups, état, colonization, christianization, tribes, democratization, junta, civil, 4th, regime, 1940, septinsular, enlightenment, candia, stato, màr, post, morea, nicaea, frankokratia, fourth, crusade, iconoclasm, arab, plague, justinian, persecution, paganism, diadochi, delian, iron, collapse, helladic, cycladic, pelasgians, grouped, dalmatian, depending, landscape, veneto, clearly, distinguished, wenzhounese, sinte, yiddish, walser, austrian, tyrolean, mòcheno, cimbrian, slavomolisano, montenegrin, torre, resian, natisone, karst, istrian, inner, carniolan, gail, brda, slovenian, vaccarizzo, nones, fornes, cadorino, judaeo, judeo, basilicata, forlivese, picene, parmigiano, bolognese, cremish, bergamasque, spasell, cremunés, novarese, pavese, southwestern, varesino, ossolano, ticinese, milanese, vallassinese, laghée, bustocco, canzés, brianzöö, tabarchino, royasc, monégasque, intemelio, genoese, brigasc, ligurian, vâlsoanin, valdôtain, cellese, faetar, aostan, gardiol, niçard, mentonasc, vivaro, alpine, algherese, occitano, logudorese, campidanese, sassarese, gallurese, castellanese, corsican, pantesco, sicilian, manduriano, salentino, vastese, tarantino, molisan, arianese, irpinian, cosentino, cilentan, castelmezzanese, barese, beneventano, neapolitan, sabino, romanesco, marinese, marchigiano, florentine, tuscan, fiuman, slovene, bird, whistle, taurus, mardin, uyghur, urdu, ubykh, turkmen, mandarin, chinese, lezgi, kyrgyz, kumyk, kazakh, karakalpak, kabardian, crimean, chechen, bosnian, avar, adyghe, abkhaz, abaza, immigrant, zaza, syriac, assyrian, aramaic, romeika, levantine, laz, kurmanji, kurdish, georgian, domari, gagauz, azerbaijani, unrecognized, gheg, tosk, maronite, kurbet, semiofficial, vlax, comparison, trojan, endearment, morphemes, eteocypriot, eteocretan, processing, promotion, teaching, mariupolitan, apulian, misthiotika, pamphylian, locrian, 2900, substrate, genealogy, lab, promotes, scanned, images, appropriate, aids, identifies, grammatical, sentences, aversa, alan, inflector, usa

Text of the page (random words):
x may have taken place later the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ θ and χ development of the voiced plosives b d and ɡ to their voiced fricative counterparts β later v ð and ɣ morphology edit in all its stages the morphology of greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes a limited but productive system of compounding 40 and a rich inflectional system although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time morphological changes are present throughout particularly in the nominal and verbal systems the major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case its functions being largely taken over by the genitive the verbal system has lost the infinitive the synthetically formed future and perfect tenses and the optative mood many have been replaced by periphrastic analytical forms nouns and adjectives edit pronouns show distinctions in person 1st 2nd and 3rd number singular dual and plural in the ancient language singular and plural alone in later stages and gender masculine feminine and neuter and decline for case from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language note 3 nouns articles and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun verbs edit the inflectional categories of the greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language s history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for ancient greek modern greek person first second and third also second person formal number singular dual and plural singular and plural tense present past and future past and non past future is expressed by a periphrastic construction aspect imperfective perfective traditionally called aorist and perfect sometimes also called perfective see note about terminology imperfective and perfective aorist perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction mood indicative subjunctive imperative and optative indicative subjunctive note 4 and imperative other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions voice active medio passive and passive active and medio passive syntax edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed january 2026 learn how and when to remove this message many aspects of the syntax of greek have remained constant verbs agree with their subject only the use of the surviving cases is largely intact nominative for subjects and predicates accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions genitive for possessors articles precede nouns adpositions are largely prepositional relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause initial however the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language ancient greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead and uses participles more restrictively the loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well ancient greek tended to be verb final but neutral word order in the modern language is verb subject object or subject verb object vocabulary edit modern greek inherits most of its vocabulary from ancient greek which in turn is an indo european language but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited greece before the arrival of proto greeks 41 some documented in mycenaean texts they include a large number of greek toponyms the form and meaning of many words have changed loanwords words of foreign origin have entered the language mainly from latin venetian ottoman turkish and semitic languages 42 during the older periods of greek loanwords into greek acquired greek inflections thus leaving only a foreign root word modern borrowings from the 20th century on especially from french and english are typically not inflected other modern borrowings are derived from slavic languages albanian and eastern romance languages romanian and aromanian 43 loanwords in other languages edit further information english words of greek origin and list of greek and latin roots in english greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages including english example words include mathematics physics astronomy democracy philosophy athletics theatre rhetoric baptism evangelist etc moreover greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages neologisms anthropology photography telephony isomer biomechanics cinematography etc together with latin words they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary for example all words ending in logy discourse there are many english words of greek origin 44 45 classification edit greek is an independent branch of the indo european language family hellenic is the branch of the indo european language family whose principal member is greek 46 in most classifications hellenic consists of greek alone 47 48 but some linguists use hellenic to refer to a group consisting of greek proper and other varieties thought to be related but different enough to be separate languages either among ancient neighboring languages 49 or among modern varieties of greek 50 ancient macedonian has been considered by some scholars a distinct sister language of greek i e part of the hellenic branch note 5 however there has been some recent scholarly agreement often expressed as cautious or tentative that ancient macedonian was a dialect of greek note 6 related to the northwest doric group note 7 in addition some linguists use hellenic to refer to modern greek in a narrow sense together with certain other divergent modern varieties deemed separate languages on the basis of a lack of mutual intelligibility 63 separate language status is most often posited for tsakonian 63 which is thought to be uniquely a descendant of doric rather than attic greek followed by pontic and cappadocian greek of anatolia 64 the griko or italiot varieties of southern italy are also not readily intelligible to speakers of standard greek 65 separate status is sometimes also argued for cypriot though this is not as easily justified 66 in contrast yevanic jewish greek is mutually intelligible with standard greek but is sometimes considered a separate language for ethnic and cultural reasons 66 greek linguistics traditionally treat all of these as dialects of a single language 47 67 68 additionally current consensus regards the now extinct phrygian language as the closest relative of greek since they share a number of phonological morphological and lexical isoglosses with some being exclusive between them note 8 scholars have proposed a graeco phrygian subgroup out of which greek and phrygian originated note 9 some indo europeanists suggest that greek may be most closely related to armenian see graeco armenian or the indo iranian languages see graeco aryan but little definitive evidence has been found 75 76 in addition albanian has also been considered somewhat related to greek see graeco albanian languages and it has been proposed that they form together with armenian a higher order subgroup along with other ancient extinct languages of the balkans this higher order subgroup is usually termed palaeo balkan and greek has a central position in it 77 78 writing system edit greek alphabet αα alpha νν nu ββ beta ξξ xi γγ gamma οο omicron δδ delta ππ pi εε epsilon ρρ rho ζζ zeta σσς sigma ηη eta ττ tau θθ theta υυ upsilon ιι iota φφ phi κκ kappa χχ chi λλ lambda ψψ psi μμ mu ωω omega history archaic local variants ϝ digamma ͱ heta ϻ san ϙ koppa ͷ tsan digamma ͳ sampi ϸ sho diacritics and other symbols diacritics ά ὰ ᾶ ἀ ἁ ᾱ ᾰ ϊ ᾳ σ̌ ligatures ϗ ϛ numerals attic ϛ 6 ϟ 90 ϡ 900 related topics use as scientific symbols orthography romanization cyrillization category v t e see also greek braille linear b edit main article linear b inscription written using the linear b syllabary on a tablet linear b attested as early as the late 15th century bc was the first script used to write greek 79 it is basically a syllabary which was finally deciphered by michael ventris and john chadwick based on the research of alice kober in the 1950s its precursor linear a has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non greek language 79 the language of the linear b texts mycenaean greek is the earliest known form of greek 79 cypriot syllabary edit main article cypriot syllabary greek inscription in cypriot syllabic script another similar system used to write the greek language was the cypriot syllabary also a descendant of linear a via the intermediate cypro minoan syllabary which is closely related to linear b but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences the cypriot syllabary is attested in cyprus from the 11th century bc until its gradual abandonment in the late classical period in favor of the standard greek alphabet 80 greek alphabet edit main articles greek alphabet and greek orthography ancient epichoric variants of the greek alphabet from euboea ionia athens and corinth comparing to modern greek greek has been written in the greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century bc it was created by modifying the phoenician alphabet with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels the variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late ionic variant introduced for writing classical attic in 403 bc in classical greek as in classical latin only upper case letters existed the lower case greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill the greek alphabet consists of 24 letters each with an uppercase majuscule and lowercase minuscule form the letter sigma has an additional lowercase form ς used in the final position of a word upper case α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ τ υ φ χ ψ ω lower case α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ ς τ υ φ χ ψ ω diacritics edit main article greek diacritics this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed january 2026 learn how and when to remove this message in addition to the letters the greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs three different accent marks acute grave and circumflex originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel the so called breathing marks rough and smooth breathing originally used to signal presence or absence of word initial h and the diaeresis used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong these marks were introduced during the course of the hellenistic period actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century and it has only been retained in typography after the writing reform of 1982 most diacritics are no longer used since then greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography or monotonic system which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis the traditional system now called the polytonic orthography or polytonic system is still used internationally for the writing of ancient greek punctuation edit in greek the question mark is written as the english semicolon while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point known as the ano teleia άνω τελεία in greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of greek words principally distinguishing ό τι ó ti whatever from ότι óti that 81 ancient greek texts often used scriptio continua continuous writing which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries 82 boustrophedon or bi directional text was also used in ancient greek latin alphabet edit greek has occasionally been written in the latin script especially in areas under venetian rule or by greek catholics the term frankolevantinika φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the latin script is used to write greek in the cultural ambit of catholicism because frankos φράγκος is an older greek term for west european dating to when most of roman catholic christian west europe was under the control of the frankish empire frankochiotika φραγκοχιώτικα meaning catholic chiot alludes to the significant presence of catholic missionaries based on the island of chios additionally the term greeklish is often used when the greek language is written in a latin script in online communications 83 the latin script is nowadays used by the greek speaking communities of southern italy hebrew alphabet edit the yevanic dialect was written by romaniote and constantinopolitan karaite jews using the hebrew alphabet 84 arabic alphabet edit in a tradition that in modern time has come to be known as greek aljamiado some greek muslims from crete wrote their cretan greek in the arabic alphabet the same happened among epirote muslims in ioannina this also happened among arabic speaking byzantine rite christians in the levant lebanon palestine syria and jordan 85 this usage is sometimes called aljamiado as when romance languages are written in the arabic alphabet 86 example text edit greek pronunciation article 1 of the universal declaration of human rights in greek όλοι οι άνθρωποι γεννιούνται ελεύθεροι και ίσοι στην αξιοπρέπεια και τα δικαιώματα είναι προικισμένοι με λογική και συνείδηση και οφείλουν να συμπεριφέρονται μεταξύ τους με πνεύμα αδελφοσύνης 87 transcription of the example text into latin alphabet óloi oi ánthropoi gennioúntai eléftheroi kai ísoi stin axioprépeia kai ta dikaiómata eínai proikisménoi me logikí kai syneídisi kai ofeíloun na symperiférontai metaxý tous me pnévma adelfosýnis article 1 of the universal declaration of human rights in english all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights they are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood 88 see also edit greece portal language portal list of medical roots suffixes and prefixes notes edit the map does not indicate where the language is majority or minority a comprehensive overview in j t hooker s mycenaean greece 23 for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and ...