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ourced material may be challenged and removed january 2025 learn how and when to remove this message due to the extremely close spacing between the heads and the disk surface hdds are vulnerable to being damaged by a head crash a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface often grinding away the thin magnetic film and causing data loss head crashes can be caused by electronic failure a sudden power failure physical shock contamination of the drive s internal enclosure wear and tear corrosion or poorly manufactured platters and heads the hdd s spindle system relies on air density inside the disk enclosure to support the heads at their proper flying height while the disk rotates hdds require a certain range of air densities to operate properly the connection to the external environment and density occurs through a small hole in the enclosure about 0 5 mm in breadth usually with a filter on the inside the breather filter 138 if the air density is too low then there is not enough lift for the flying head so the head gets too close to the disk and there is a risk of head crashes and data loss specially manufactured sealed and pressurized disks are needed for reliable high altitude operation above about 3 000 m 9 800 ft 139 modern disks include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment breather holes can be seen on most disk drives excluding sealed drives such as drives that use helium where any exposure to outside air would cause a failure they usually have a sticker next to them warning the user not to cover the holes the air inside the operating drive is constantly moving too being swept in motion by friction with the spinning platters this air passes through an internal recirculation filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture any particles or chemicals that may have somehow entered the enclosure and any particles or outgassing generated internally in normal operation very high humidity present for extended periods of time can corrode the heads and platters an exception to this are hermetically sealed helium filled hdds that largely eliminate environmental issues that can arise due to humidity or atmospheric pressure changes such hdds were introduced by hgst in their first successful high volume implementation in 2013 for giant magnetoresistive gmr heads in particular a minor head crash from contamination that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk still results in the head temporarily overheating due to friction with the disk surface and can render the data unreadable for a short period until the head temperature stabilizes so called thermal asperity a problem which can partially be dealt with by proper electronic filtering of the read signal when the logic board of a hard disk fails the drive can often be restored to functioning order and the data recovered by replacing the circuit board with one of an identical hard disk in the case of read write head faults they can be replaced using specialized tools in a dust free environment if the disk platters are undamaged they can be transferred into an identical enclosure and the data can be copied or cloned onto a new drive in the event of disk platter failures disassembly and imaging of the disk platters may be required 140 for logical damage to file systems a variety of tools including fsck on unix like systems and chkdsk on windows can be used for data recovery recovery from logical damage can require file carving a common expectation is that hard disk drives designed and marketed for server use will fail less frequently than consumer grade drives usually used in desktop computers however two independent studies by carnegie mellon university 141 and google 142 found that the grade of a drive does not relate to the drive s failure rate a 2011 summary of research into ssd and magnetic disk failure patterns by tom s hardware summarized research findings as follows 143 mean time between failures mtbf does not indicate reliability the annualized failure rate afr is higher and usually more relevant hdds do not tend to fail during early use and temperature has only a minor effect instead failure rates steadily increase with age s m a r t warns of mechanical issues but not other issues affecting reliability and is therefore not a reliable indicator of condition 144 failure rates of drives sold as enterprise and consumer are very much similar although these drive types are customized for their different operating environments 145 146 in drive arrays one drive s failure significantly increases the short term risk of a second drive failing as of 2019 update backblaze a storage provider reported an annualized failure rate of two percent per year for a storage farm with 110 000 off the shelf hdds with the reliability varying widely between models and manufacturers 147 backblaze subsequently reported in 2021 that the failure rate for hdds and ssd of equivalent age was similar 7 an independent 2026 peer reviewed analysis of the backblaze data found that manufacturer differences remained after adjusting for drive age capacity form factor and temperature 148 to minimize cost and overcome failures of individual hdds storage systems providers rely on redundant hdd arrays hdds that fail are replaced on an ongoing basis 147 93 close up of an hdd head resting on a disk platter its mirror reflection is visible on the platter surface unless the head is on a landing zone the heads touching the platters while in operation can be catastrophic hdd head crash even worse crash destroyed hard disk glass platter visible market segments edit consumer segment edit two high end consumer sata 2 5 inch 10 000 rpm hdds factory mounted in 3 5 inch adapter frames desktop hdds edit desktop hdds typically have one to five internal platters rotate at 5 400 to 10 000 rpm and have a media transfer rate of 0 5 gbit s or higher 1 gb 10 9 bytes 1 gbit s 10 9 bit s earlier 1980 1990s drives tend to be slower in rotation speed as of january 2025 update the highest capacity desktop hdds stored 36 tb 149 150 with plans to release 50 tb drives later in 2025 151 36 tb hdds were released in 2025 citation needed as of 2016 update the typical speed of a hard drive in an average desktop computer is 7 200 rpm whereas low cost desktop computers may use 5 900 rpm or 5 400 rpm drives for some time in the 2000s and early 2010s some desktop users and data centers also used 10 000 rpm drives such as western digital raptor but such drives have become much rarer as of 2016 update since the wd velociraptor was discontinued and are not commonly used now having been replaced by nand flash based ssds mobile laptop hdds edit smaller than their desktop and enterprise counterparts they tend to be slower and have lower capacity because typically has one internal platter and were 2 5 or 1 8 physical size instead of more common for desktops 3 5 form factor mobile hdds spin at 4 200 rpm 5 200 rpm 5 400 rpm or 7 200 rpm with 5 400 rpm being the most common 7 200 rpm drives tend to be more expensive and have smaller capacities while 4 200 rpm models usually were in older laptops and portables but are now outdated because of smaller platter s mobile hdds generally have lower capacity than their desktop counterparts consumer electronics hdds edit these drives typically spin at 5400 rpm and include video hard drives sometimes called surveillance hard drives are embedded into digital video recorders and provide a guaranteed streaming capacity even in the face of read and write errors 152 drives embedded into automotive vehicles they are typically built to resist larger amounts of shock and operate over a larger temperature range external and portable hdds edit see also usb mass storage device class and disk enclosure current external hard disk drives typically connect via usb c earlier models use usb b sometimes with using of a pair of ports for better bandwidth or rarely esata connection variants using usb 2 0 interface generally have slower data transfer rates when compared to internally mounted hard drives connected through sata plug and play drive functionality offers system compatibility and features large storage options and portable design as of march 2015 update available capacities for external hard disk drives ranged from 500 gb to 10 tb 153 external hard disk drives are usually available as assembled integrated products but may be also assembled by combining an external enclosure with usb or other interface with a separately purchased drive they are available in 2 5 inch and 3 5 inch sizes 2 5 inch variants are typically called portable external drives while 3 5 inch variants are referred to as desktop external drives portable drives are packaged in smaller and lighter enclosures than the desktop drives additionally portable drives use power provided by the usb connection while desktop drives require external power bricks features such as encryption wi fi connectivity 154 biometric security or multiple interfaces for example firewire are available at a higher cost 155 there are pre assembled external hard disk drives that when taken out from their enclosures cannot be used internally in a laptop or desktop computer due to embedded usb interface on their printed circuit boards and lack of sata or parallel ata interfaces 156 157 two 2 5 external usb hard drives seagate hard drive with a controller board to convert sata to usb firewire and esata enterprise and business segment edit server and workstation hdds hot swappable hdd enclosure typically used with multiple user computers running enterprise software examples are transaction processing databases internet infrastructure email webserver e commerce scientific computing software and nearline storage management software enterprise drives commonly operate continuously 24 7 in demanding environments while delivering the highest possible performance without sacrificing reliability maximum capacity is not the primary goal and as a result the drives are often offered in capacities that are relatively low in relation to their cost 158 the fastest enterprise hdds spin at 10 000 or 15 000 rpm and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds above 1 6 gbit s 159 and a sustained transfer rate up to 1 gbit s 159 drives running at 10 000 or 15 000 rpm use smaller platters to mitigate increased power requirements as they have less air drag and therefore generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives enterprise hdds are commonly connected through serial attached scsi sas or fibre channel fc some support multiple ports so they can be connected to a redundant host bus adapter enterprise hdds can have sector sizes larger than 512 bytes often 520 524 528 or 536 bytes the additional per sector space can be used by hardware raid controllers or applications for storing data integrity field dif or data integrity extensions dix data resulting in higher reliability and prevention of silent data corruption 160 surveillance hard drives video recording hdds used in network video recorders 152 economy edit price evolution edit hdd price per byte decreased at the rate of 40 per year during 1988 1996 51 per year during 1996 2003 and 34 per year during 2003 2010 161 78 the price decrease slowed down to 13 per year during 2011 2014 as areal density increase slowed and the 2011 thailand floods damaged manufacturing facilities 83 and have held at 11 per year during 2010 2017 162 the federal reserve board has published a quality adjusted price index for large scale enterprise storage systems including three or more enterprise hdds and associated controllers racks and cables prices for these large scale storage systems decreased at the rate of 30 per year during 2004 2009 and 22 per year during 2009 2014 78 manufacturers and sales edit see also history of hard disk drives and list of defunct hard disk manufacturers diagram of hdd manufacturer consolidation more than 200 companies have manufactured hdds over time but consolidations have concentrated production to just three manufacturers today western digital seagate and toshiba production is mainly in the pacific rim hdd unit shipments peaked at 651 million units in 2010 and have been declining since then to 166 million units in 2022 163 seagate at 43 of units had the largest market share 164 competition from ssds edit hdd and ssd hdds are being superseded by solid state drives ssds in markets where the higher speed up to 7 gigabytes per second for m 2 ngff nvme drives 165 and 2 5 gigabytes per second for pcie expansion card drives 166 ruggedness and lower power of ssds are more important than price since the bit cost of ssds is four to nine times higher than hdds 16 15 as of 2016 update hdds are reported to have a failure rate of 2 9 per year while ssds have fewer failures 1 3 per year 167 however ssds have more un correctable data errors than hdds 167 ssds are available in larger capacities up to 100 tb 40 than the largest hdd as well as higher storage densities 100 tb and 30 tb ssds are housed in 2 5 inch hdd cases with the same height as a 3 5 inch hdd 168 169 170 171 172 although such large ssds are very expensive a laboratory demonstration of a 1 33 tb 3d nand chip with 96 layers nand commonly used in solid state drives ssds had 5 5 tbit in 2 as of 2019 update 173 while the maximum areal density for hdds is 1 5 tbit in 2 the areal density of flash memory is doubling every two years similar to moore s law 40 per year and faster than the 10 20 per year for hdds in 2025 the maximum capacity was 36 terabytes for a hdd 174 and 100 terabytes for an ssd 175 hdds were used in 70 of the desktop and notebook computers produced in 2016 and ssds were used in 30 176 in 2025 hdds are not found in laptops if not very rarely and most desktops come with an ssd only though some still are configured with an ssd and hdd or rarely with an hdd only citation needed the market for silicon based flash memory nand chips used in ssds and other applications is growing faster than for hdds worldwide nand revenue grew 16 per year from 22 billion to 57 billion during 2011 2017 while production grew 45 per year from 19 exabytes to 175 exabytes 177 see also edit electronics portal automatic acoustic management cleanroom click of death comparison of disk encryption software data erasure drive mapping error recovery control hard disk drive performance characteristics hybrid drive microdrive network drive file server shared resource object storage write precompensation notes edit other terms used to describe various hard disk drives include disk drive disk file direct access storage device dasd ckd disk and winchester disk drive after the ibm 3340 the term dasd includes devices with media other than disks the term hard disk drive can refer to devices with removable media between 1962 and 1973 ibm introduced several disk drives with removable media ibm 1311 ibm 2310 ibm 2311 ibm 2314 family...