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ntralized routing aspects the exterior gateway protocol egp was replaced by a new protocol the border gateway protocol bgp this provided a meshed topology for the internet and reduced the centric architecture which arpanet had emphasized in 1994 classless inter domain routing cidr was introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables 132 optical networking the mos transistor underpinned the rapid growth of telecommunication bandwidth over the second half of the 20th century 133 to address the need for transmission capacity beyond that provided by radio satellite and analog copper telephone lines engineers developed optical communications systems based on fiber optic cables powered by lasers and optical amplifier techniques the concept of lasing arose from a 1917 paper by albert einstein on the quantum theory of radiation einstein expanded upon a conversation with max planck on how atoms absorb and emit light part of a thought process that with input from erwin schrödinger werner heisenberg and others gave rise to quantum mechanics specifically in his quantum theory einstein mathematically determined that light could be generated not only by spontaneous emission such as the light emitted by an incandescent light or the sun but also by stimulated emission forty years later on november 13 1957 columbia university physics student gordon gould first realized how to make light by stimulated emission through a process of optical amplification he coined the term laser for this technology light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation 134 using gould s light amplification method patented as optically pumped laser amplifier 135 theodore maiman made the first working laser on may 16 1960 136 gould co founded optelecom in 1973 to commercialize his inventions in optical fiber telecommunications 137 just as corning glass was producing the first commercial fiber optic cable in small quantities optelecom configured its own fiber lasers and optical amplifiers into the first commercial optical communication systems which it delivered to chevron and the us army missile defense 138 three years later gte deployed the first optical telephone system in 1977 in long beach california 139 by the early 1980s optical networks powered by lasers led and optical amplifier equipment supplied by bell labs ntt and perelli clarification needed were used by select universities and long distance telephone providers citation needed tcp ip goes global 1980s satnet cern and the european internet see also protocol wars in 1982 norway norsar and ndre and peter kirstein s research group at university college london ucl left the arpanet and reconnected using tcp ip over satnet 109 140 there were 40 british research groups using ucl s link to arpanet in 1975 80 by 1984 there was a user population of about 150 people on both sides of the atlantic 141 between 1984 and 1988 cern began installation and operation of tcp ip to interconnect its major internal computer systems workstations pcs and an accelerator control system cern continued to operate a limited self developed system cernet internally and several incompatible typically proprietary network protocols externally there was considerable resistance in europe towards more widespread use of tcp ip and the cern tcp ip intranets remained isolated from the internet until 1989 when a transatlantic connection to cornell university was established 142 143 144 the computer science network csnet began operation in 1981 to provide networking connections to institutions that could not connect directly to arpanet its first international connection was to israel in 1984 soon after connections were established to computer science departments in canada france and germany 23 in 1988 the first international connections to nsfnet was established by france s inria 145 146 and piet beertema at the centrum wiskunde informatica cwi in the netherlands 147 daniel karrenberg from cwi visited ben segal cern s tcp ip coordinator looking for advice about the transition of eunet the european side of the uucp usenet network much of which ran over x 25 links over to tcp ip the previous year segal had met with len bosack from the then still small company cisco about purchasing some tcp ip routers for cern and segal was able to give karrenberg advice and forward him on to cisco for the appropriate hardware this expanded the european portion of the internet across the existing uucp networks the nordunet connection to nsfnet was in place soon after providing open access for university students in denmark finland iceland norway and sweden 148 in january 1989 cern opened its first external tcp ip connections 149 this coincided with the creation of réseaux ip européens ripe initially a group of ip network administrators who met regularly to carry out coordination work together later in 1992 ripe was formally registered as a cooperative in amsterdam the united kingdom s national research and education network nren janet began operation in 1984 using the uk s coloured book protocols and connected to nsfnet in 1989 in 1991 janet adopted internet protocol on the existing network 150 151 the same year dai davies introduced internet technology into the pan european nren europanet which was built on the x 25 protocol 152 153 the european academic and research network earn and rare adopted ip around the same time and the european internet backbone ebone became operational in 1992 142 nonetheless for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s engineers organizations and nations were polarized over the issue of which standard the osi model or the internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks 107 154 155 the link to the pacific japan which had built the uucp based network junet in 1984 connected to csnet 23 and later to nsfnet in 1989 marking the spread of the internet to asia south korea set up a two node domestic tcp ip network in 1982 the system development network sdn adding a third node the following year sdn was connected to the rest of the world in august 1983 using uucp unix to unix copy connected to csnet in december 1984 23 and formally connected to the nsfnet in 1990 156 157 158 in australia ad hoc networking to arpa and in between australian universities formed in the late 1980s based on various technologies such as x 25 uucp net and via a csnet 23 these were limited in their connection to the global networks due to the cost of making individual international uucp dial up or x 25 connections in 1989 australian universities joined the push towards using ip protocols to unify their networking infrastructures aarnet was formed in 1989 by the australian vice chancellors committee and provided a dedicated ip based network for australia new zealand adopted the uk s coloured book protocols as an interim standard and established its first international ip connection to the u s in 1989 159 a digital divide emerges internet users in 2023 as a percentage of a country s population source international telecommunication union 160 main articles global digital divide and digital divide fixed broadband internet subscriptions in 2012 as a percentage of a country s population source international telecommunication union 161 mobile broadband internet subscriptions in 2012 as a percentage of a country s population source international telecommunication union 162 while developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the internet developing countries began to experience a digital divide separating them from the internet on an essentially continental basis they built organizations for internet resource administration and to share operational experience which enabled more transmission facilities to be put into place africa at the beginning of the 1990s african countries relied upon x 25 ipss and 2400 baud modem uucp links for international and internetwork computer communications 163 in august 1995 infomail uganda ltd a privately held firm in kampala now known as infocom and nsn network services of avon colorado sold in 1997 and now known as clear channel satellite established africa s first native tcp ip high speed satellite internet services the data connection was originally carried by a c band rscc russian satellite which connected infomail s kampala offices directly to nsn s mae west point of presence using a private network from nsn s leased ground station in new jersey infocom s first satellite connection was just 64 kbit s serving a sun host computer and twelve us robotics dial up modems in 1996 a usaid funded project the leland initiative started work on developing full internet connectivity for the continent guinea mozambique madagascar and rwanda gained satellite earth stations in 1997 followed by ivory coast and benin in 1998 africa is building an internet infrastructure afrinic headquartered in mauritius manages ip address allocation for the continent as with other internet regions there is an operational forum the internet community of operational networking specialists 164 there are many programs to provide high performance transmission plant and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable high speed cables join north africa and the horn of africa to intercontinental cable systems undersea cable development is slower for east africa the original joint effort between new partnership for africa s development nepad and the east africa submarine system eassy has broken off and may become two efforts 165 asia and oceania the asia pacific network information centre apnic headquartered in australia manages ip address allocation for the continent apnic sponsors an operational forum the asia pacific regional internet conference on operational technologies apricot 166 in south korea vdsl a last mile technology developed in the 1990s by nextlevel communications connected corporate and consumer copper based telephone lines to the internet 167 the people s republic of china established its first tcp ip college network tsinghua university s tunet in 1991 the prc went on to make its first global internet connection in 1994 between the beijing electro spectrometer collaboration and stanford university s linear accelerator center however china went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country wide content filter 168 japan hosted the annual meeting of the internet society inet 92 in kobe singapore developed technet in 1990 and thailand gained a global internet connection between chulalongkorn university and uunet in 1992 169 latin america as with the other regions the latin american and caribbean internet addresses registry lacnic manages the ip address space and other resources for its area lacnic headquartered in uruguay operates dns root reverse dns and other key services 1989 2004 rise of the global internet web 1 0 main articles history of the world wide web and information age development initially as with its predecessor networks the system that would evolve into the internet was primarily for government and government body use although commercial use was forbidden the exact definition of commercial use was unclear and subjective uucp net and the x 25 ipss had no such restrictions which would eventually see the official barring of uucpnet use of arpanet and nsfnet connections number of internet hosts worldwide 1969 2019 source internet systems consortium 170 as a result during the late 1980s the first internet service provider isp companies were formed companies like psinet uunet netcom and portal software were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access uucp based email and usenet news to the public in 1989 mci mail became the first commercial email provider to get an experimental gateway to the internet 171 the first commercial dialup isp in the united states was the world which opened in 1989 172 in 1992 the u s congress passed the scientific and advanced technology act 42 u s c 1862 g which allowed nsf to support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which were not used exclusively for research and education purposes thus permitting nsfnet to interconnect with commercial networks 173 174 this caused controversy within the research and education community who were concerned commercial use of the network might lead to an internet that was less responsive to their needs and within the community of commercial network providers who felt that government subsidies were giving an unfair advantage to some organizations 175 by 1990 arpanet s goals had been fulfilled and new networking technologies exceeded the original scope and the project came to a close new network service providers including psinet alternet cerfnet ans co re and many others were offering network access to commercial customers nsfnet was no longer the de facto backbone and exchange point of the internet the commercial internet exchange cix metropolitan area exchanges maes and later network access points naps were becoming the primary interconnections between many networks the final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on april 30 1995 when the national science foundation ended its sponsorship of the nsfnet backbone service 176 177 nsf provided initial support for the naps and interim support to help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial isps nsf also sponsored the very high speed backbone network service vbns which continued to provide support for the supercomputing centers and research and education in the united states 178 an event held on 11 january 1994 the superhighway summit at ucla s royce hall was the first public conference bringing together all of the major industry government and academic leaders in the field and also began the national dialogue about the information superhighway and its implications 179 internet use in wider society the invention of the world wide web by tim berners lee at cern as an application on the internet 180 brought many social and commercial uses to what was at the time a network of networks for academic and research institutions 181 182 the web opened to the public in 1991 and began to enter general use in 1993 4 when websites for everyday use started to become available 183 stamped envelope of russian post issued in 1993 with stamp and graphics dedicated to first russian underwater digital optic cable laid in 1993 by rostelecom from kingisepp to copenhagen see also internet in russia during the first decade or so of the public internet the immense changes it would eventually enable in the 2000s were still nascent in terms of providing context for this period mobile cellular devices smartphones and other cellular devices which today provide near universal access were used for business and not a routine household item owned by parents and childre...