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raction between humans and other elements of a system and the profession that applies theory principles data and methods to design in order to optimize human well being and overall system performance 1 2 it involves the application of psychological and physiological principles within the domains of engineering and design encompassing products processes and systems the primary goals of human factors engineering are to reduce human error increase productivity and overall system performance and enhance safety health and comfort a specific focus of this field is the interaction between the human and other sociotechnical elements 3 the field applies theories principles and data from disciplines including psychology sociology engineering biomechanics industrial design physiology sociotechnical systems human computer interaction anthropometry interaction design visual design user experience and user interface design human factors research employs methods and approaches from these and other disciplines to study human behavior and generate data to achieve previously stated goals in studying and sharing learning on the design of equipment devices and processes that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities the two terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous in current literature 4 5 6 part of a series on psychology outline history subfields basic psychology abnormal affective neuroscience affective science behavioral genetics behavioral neuroscience behaviorism cognitive cognitivism cognitive neuroscience social comparative cross cultural cultural developmental differential ecological evolutionary experimental gestalt intelligence mathematical moral neuropsychology perception personality psycholinguistics psychophysiology quantitative social theoretical applied psychology anomalistic applied behavior analysis art assessment aviation biography of famous people clinical coaching color community consumer counseling critical crowd educational ergonomics fashion feminist food forensic police health history humanistic industrial and organizational legal media medical military music occupational health pastoral peace and war political positive photography psychometrics psychotherapy religion school sex differences space sport and exercise suicidology systems trading traffic concepts behavior behavioral engineering behavioral genetics behavioral neuroscience cognition competence consciousness consumer behavior emotions feelings human factors and ergonomics intelligence maslow s hierarchy of needs mental state mind psychology of religion psychometrics sex differences terror management theory lists counseling topics disciplines organizations outline psychologists psychotherapies research methods schools of thought timeline topics psychology portal v t e domains of specialization edit as defined by the international ergonomics association the principal domains of specialization include 7 physical ergonomics which is concerned with human anatomical anthropometric physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity relevant topics include working postures materials handling repetitive movements work related musculoskeletal disorders workplace layout safety and health cognitive ergonomics which is concerned with mental processes such as perception memory reasoning and motor response as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system relevant topics include mental workload decision making skilled performance human computer interaction human reliability work stress and training as these may relate to human system design organizational ergonomics which is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems including their organizational structures policies and processes relevant topics include communication crew resource management work design design of working times teamwork participatory design community ergonomics cooperative work new work paradigms virtual organizations telework and quality management physical ergonomics edit physical ergonomics the science of designing user interaction with equipment and workplaces to fit the user generally acceptable weights and positions during manual handling of loads physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy and some of the anthropometric physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity 8 it works to mitigate ergonomic hazards physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the design of both consumer and industrial products for optimizing performance and preventing treating work related disorders by reducing the mechanisms behind mechanically induced acute and chronic musculoskeletal injuries disorders 9 risk factors such as localized mechanical pressures force and posture in a sedentary office environment lead to injuries attributed to an occupational environment 10 physical ergonomics is important to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis both chronic and temporary or carpal tunnel syndrome pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful or render a device unusable for those who are many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders and to treat pressure related chronic pain 11 one of the most prevalent types of work related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder work related musculoskeletal disorders wrmds result in persistent pain loss of functional capacity and work disability but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms 12 every year 1 8 million u s workers experience wrmds and nearly 600 000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work 13 certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of worker complaints of undue strain localized fatigue discomfort or pain that does not go away after overnight rest these types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions frequent heavy or overhead lifts awkward work positions or use of vibrating equipment 14 the occupational safety and health administration osha has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers compensation costs increase productivity and decrease employee turnover 15 mitigation solutions can include both short term and long term solutions short and long term solutions involve awareness training positioning of the body furniture and equipment and ergonomic exercises sit stand stations and computer accessories that provide soft surfaces for resting the palm as well as split keyboards are recommended additionally resources within the hr department can be allocated to provide assessments to employees to ensure the above criteria are met 16 therefore it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic using sources such as injury and illness logs medical records and job analyses 14 ergonomically designed keyboard innovative workstations that are being tested include sit stand desks height adjustable desks treadmill desks pedal devices and cycle ergometers 17 in multiple studies these new workstations resulted in decreased waist circumference and improved psychological well being however a significant number of additional studies have seen no marked improvement in health outcomes 18 with the emergence of collaborative robots and smart systems in manufacturing environments the artificial agents can be used to improve physical ergonomics of human co workers for example during human robot collaboration the robot can use biomechanical models of the human co worker in order to adjust the working configuration and account for various ergonomic metrics such as human posture joint torques arm manipulability and muscle fatigue 19 20 the ergonomic suitability of the shared workspace with respect to these metrics can also be displayed to the human with workspace maps through visual interfaces 21 cognitive ergonomics edit main article cognitive ergonomics cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes such as perception emotion memory reasoning and motor response as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system 8 22 relevant topics include mental workload decision making skilled performance human reliability work stress and training as these may relate to human system and human computer interaction design 18 organizational ergonomics and safety culture edit organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio technical systems including their organizational structures policies and processes 8 relevant topics include human communication successes or failures in adaptation to other system elements 23 24 crew resource management work design work systems design of working times teamwork participatory ergonomics community ergonomics cooperative work new work programs virtual organizations remote work and quality management safety culture within an organization of engineers and technicians has been linked to engineering safety with cultural dimensions including power distance and ambiguity tolerance low power distance has been shown to be more conducive to a safety culture organizations with cultures of concealment or lack of empathy have been shown to have poor safety culture there are many specializations within these broad categories specializations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics specializations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability human computer interaction and user experience engineering 25 some specializations may cut across these domains environmental ergonomics is concerned with human interaction with the environment as characterized by climate temperature pressure vibration light 26 the quickly emerging field of human factors in highway safety uses human factors principles to understand the actions and capabilities of road users car and truck drivers pedestrians cyclists etc and use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reduce traffic collisions driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44 of fatal collisions in the united states so a topic of particular interest is how road users gather and process information about the road and its environment and how to assist them to make the appropriate decision 27 new terms are being generated all the time for instance user trial engineer may refer to a human factors engineering professional who specializes in user trials 28 although the names change human factors professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment systems and working methods to improve comfort health safety and productivity practice edit human factors engineering hfe is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy to use interfaces to machines and equipment proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders which can develop over time and can lead to long term disability human factors and ergonomics are concerned with the fit between the user equipment and environment or fitting a job to a person 29 or fitting the task to the man 30 it accounts for the user s capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks functions information and the environment suit that user to assess the fit between a person and the technology being used human factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job activity being performed and the demands on the user the equipment used its size shape and how appropriate it is for the task and the information used how it is presented accessed and modified ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments including anthropometry biomechanics mechanical engineering industrial engineering industrial design information design kinesiology physiology cognitive psychology industrial and organizational psychology and space psychology etymology edit the term ergonomics from the greek ἔργον meaning work and νόμος meaning natural law first entered the modern lexicon when polish scientist wojciech jastrzębowski used the word in his 1857 article rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z nauki przyrody the outline of ergonomics i e science of work based on the truths taken from the natural science 31 the french scholar jean gustave courcelle seneuil apparently without knowledge of jastrzębowski s article used the word with a slightly different meaning in 1858 the introduction of the term to the english lexicon is widely attributed to psychologist hywel murrell at the 1949 meeting at the uk s admiralty which led to the foundation of the ergonomics society he used it to encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during and after world war ii 32 the expression human factors is a predominantly north american 33 term which has been adopted to emphasize the application of the same methods to non work related situations a human factor is a physical or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems the terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous 4 history edit ancient societies edit some have stated that human ergonomics began with australopithecus prometheus also known as little foot a primate who created handheld tools out of different types of stone clearly distinguishing between tools based on their ability to perform designated tasks 34 the foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of ancient greece a good deal of evidence indicates that greek civilization in the 5th century bc used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools jobs and workplaces one outstanding example of this can be found in the description hippocrates gave of how a surgeon s workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged 35 the archaeological record also shows that the early egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles industrial societies edit bernardino ramazzini was one of the first people to systematically study the illness that resulted from work earning himself the nickname father of occupational medicine in the late 1600s and early 1700s ramazzini visited many worksites where he documented the movements of laborers and spoke to them about their ailments he then published de morbis artificum diatriba latin for diseases of workers which detailed occupations common illnesses and remedies 36 in the 19th century frederick winslow taylor pioneered the scientific management method which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task taylor found that he could for example triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incremen...