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1949 the un general assembly adopted a resolution on libyan independence stipulating that it must come into being by january 1952 27 the resolution called for libya to become a single state led by idris who was to be declared king of libya 28 he had been reluctant to accept the position 28 both the united kingdom and the united states who were committed to preventing any growth in soviet influence in the southern mediterranean agreed to this for their own cold war strategic reasons they recognised that while they would be able to establish military bases in an independent libyan state sympathetic to their interests they would have been unable to do so were libya to have entered un sponsored trusteeship 29 the tripolitanians largely united under selim muntasser and the united national front agreed to this plan in order to avoid further european colonial rule 30 the concept of a kingdom would be alien to libyan society where the loyalties to the family tribe and region or alternately to the global muslim community were far stronger than to any concept of libyan nationhood 28 king of libya 1951 1969 edit king idris with then u s vice president richard nixon march 1957 on 24 december 1951 idris announced the establishment of the united kingdom of libya from the al manar palace in benghazi 31 the country had a population of approximately one million the majority of whom were arabs but with berber tebu sephardi jewish greek turkish and italian minorities 32 the newly established state faced serious problems in 1951 libya was one of the world s poorest countries 33 much of its infrastructure had been destroyed by war it had very little trade and high unemployment and both a 40 infant mortality rate and a 94 illiteracy rate 28 only 1 of libya s land mass was arable with another 3 4 being used for pastoral farming 34 although the three provinces had been united they shared little common aspiration 35 the kingdom was established along federal lines 36 something that cyrenaica and fezzan had insisted upon fearing that they would otherwise be dominated by tripolitania where two thirds of the libyan population lived 37 conversely the tripolitanians had largely favoured a unitary state believing that it would allow the government to act more effectively in the national interest and fearing that a federal system would result in further british and french domination of libya 37 the three provinces had their own legislative authorities while that of fezzan was composed entirely of elected officials those of cyrenaica and tripolitania contained a mix of elected and non elected representatives 38 this constitutional framework left libya with a weak central government and strong provincial autonomy 39 the governments of successive prime ministers tried to push through economic policies but found them hampered by the differing provinces 40 there remained a persistent distrust between cyrenaica and tripolitania 28 benghazi and tripoli were appointed as joint capital cities with the country s parliament moving between the two 41 the city of bayda also became a de facto summer capital as idris moved there 41 according to the reporter jonathan bearman king idris was nominally a constitutional monarch but in practice was a spiritual leader with autocratic temporal power 42 with libya being a monarchical dictatorship rather than a constitutional monarchy or parliamentary democracy 38 the new constitution granted idris significant personal power 37 and he remained a crucial player in the country s political system 43 idris ruled via a palace cabinet namely his royal diwan which contained a chef de cabinet two deputies and senior advisers 38 this diwan worked in consultation with the federal government to determine the policies of the libyan state 38 king idris was a self effacing devout muslim he refused to allow his portrait to be featured on libyan currency and also insisted that nothing should be named after him except the tripoli idris airport 37 idris s regime soon banned political parties from operating in the country claiming that they exacerbated internal instability 40 from 1952 onward all candidates for election were government nominees 40 in 1954 the prime minister mustafa ben halim suggested that libya be converted from a federal to a unitary system and that idris be proclaimed president for life 44 idris recognised that this would deal with the problems caused by federalism and would put a stop to the intrigues among the senussi family surrounding his succession he asked ben halim to produce a formal draft for these plans but the idea was dropped amid opposition from cyrenaican tribal chiefs 44 king idris on the cover of the libyan al iza a magazine 15 august 1965 under king idris libya found itself within the western sphere of influence 45 it became the recipient of western expertise and aid and by the end of 1959 it had received over 100 million of aid from the united states being the single largest per capita recipient of american aid 46 u s companies would also play a leading role in the development of the libyan oil industry 47 this support was provided on a quid pro quo basis and in return libya granted the united states and united kingdom usage of the wheelus air base and the al adem air base 48 this reliance on the western nations placed libya at odds with the growing arab nationalist and arab socialist sentiment across the arab world 47 the arab nationalist sentiment promoted by radio cairo found a particularly receptive audience in tripolitania 49 in july 1967 anti western riots broke out in tripoli and benghazi to protest the west s support of israel against the arab states in the six day war 50 many oil workers across libya went on strike in solidarity with the arab forces fighting israel 50 during the 1950s a number of foreign companies began prospecting for oil in libya with the country s government passing the minerals law of 1953 and then the petroleum law of 1955 to regulate this process 51 in 1959 much larger oil reserves were discovered in libya 52 which helped idris transform the nation into one of the richest in the world 53 the 1955 law created conditions that enabled small oil companies to drill alongside larger corporations each concession had a low entry fee with rents only increasing significantly after the eighth year of drilling 54 this created a competitive atmosphere that prevented any one company from becoming crucial to the country s oil operation although it had the downside of incentivising companies to produce as much oil as possible in as quick a period as possible 55 libya s oil fields fuelled rapidly growing demand in europe 56 and by 1967 it was supplying a third of the oil entering the west european market 57 within a few years libya had grown to become the world s fourth largest oil producer 56 oil production provided a huge boost to the libyan economy whereas the per capita annual income in 1951 had been 25 35 by 1969 it was 2 000 44 by 1961 the oil industry was exerting the greater influence over libyan politics than any other issue 43 in 1962 libya joined the organization of the petroleum exporting countries opec 58 in ensuing years the libyan state furthered its control over the industry establishing a ministry of petroleum affairs in 1963 and then the libyan national oil company 59 in 1968 they established the libyan petroleum company lipetco and announced that any further concession agreements would have to be joint ventures with lipetco 59 libya experienced rampant corruption and favouritism 47 a number of high profile corruption scandals impacted on the highest levels of idris s government 50 in june 1960 idris issued a public letter in which he condemned this corruption claiming that bribery and nepotism will destroy the very existence of the state and its good reputation both at home and abroad 60 king idris meeting president nasser of egypt on april 26 1963 king idris abolished libya s federal system 61 both the provincial legislative assemblies and the provincial judicial systems were abolished 61 doing so allowed him to concentrate economic and administrative planning at a centralised national level 61 and thenceforth all taxes and oil revenues were directed straight to the central government 61 as part of this reform the united kingdom of libya was renamed the kingdom of libya 61 this reform was not popular among many of libya s provinces which saw their power curtailed 61 according to the historian dirk vandewalle this change was the single most critical political act during the monarchy s tenure in office 61 the reform handed far greater political power to idris than he had held previously 62 by the mid 1960s idris began to increasingly retreat from active involvement in the country s governance 63 overthrow and exile edit king idris with mohamed ben ghalbon towards the end of his life on 1 september 1969 while king idris was in turkey for medical treatment he was deposed in the 1969 libyan revolution led by army officers under muammar gaddafi the monarchy was abolished and a republic proclaimed 64 the coup pre empted king idris s intended abdication and the succession of his heir the following day from turkey he and the queen traveled to kamena vourla greece by ship and went into exile in egypt after the 1969 coup king idris was put on trial in absentia in the libyan people s court and sentenced to death in november 1971 muammar gaddafi s regime portrayed king idris s administration as having been weak inept corrupt anachronistic and lacking in nationalist credentials a view that would come to be widely adopted 65 in 1983 at the age of 93 king idris died in a hospital in the district of dokki in cairo 66 he was buried at al baqi cemetery medina saudi arabia legacy edit citizens from bayda libya holding a photo of king idris in 2011 according to vandewalle king idris s monarchy started libya on the road of political exclusion of its citizens and of a profound de politicization that still characterised the country in the first years of the 21st century 67 he informed the u s ambassador to libya and an early academic researcher that he had not truly wanted to rule over a unified libya 43 muammar gaddafi s policies with regard to the oil industry would also be technocratic and bore many similarities with those of king idris 68 although the king died in exile and most libyans were born after his reign during the libyan civil war many demonstrators opposing gaddafi carried portraits of the king especially in cyrenaica the tricolour flag used during the era of the monarchy was frequently used as a symbol of the revolution and was re adopted by the national transitional council as the official flag of libya 69 personal life edit vandewalle characterised king idris as a scholarly individual whose entire life would be marked by a reluctance to engage in politics 12 for vandewalle idris was a well meaning but reluctant ruler 70 as well as a pious deeply religious and self effacing man 37 the libyan prime minister ben halim stated his view that i was sure that idris sincerely wanted reform but i knew from experience that he became hesitant when he felt that such reform would affect the interests of his entourage he would gradually pull back until he abandoned the reform plans moved by the whisperings of his entourage 71 king idris married five times at kufra 1896 1897 his cousin sayyida aisha binti sayyid muhammad as sharif al sanussi 1873 jaghbub 1905 or 1907 kufra eldest daughter of sayyid muhammad as sharif bin sayyid muhammad al sanussi by his fourth wife fatima daughter of umar bin muhammad al ashhab of fezzan by whom he had one son who died in infancy at kufra 1907 divorced 1922 his cousin sakina daughter of muhammad as sharif by whom he had one son and one daughter both of whom died in infancy at kufra 1911 divorced 1915 nafisa daughter of ahmad abu al qasim al isawi by whom he had one son who died in infancy at siwa egypt 1931 his cousin sayyida fatima al shi fa binti sayyid ahmad as sharif al sanussi fatimah el sharif 1911 kufra 3 october 2009 cairo buried in jannat al baqi medina saudi arabia fifth daughter of field marshal sayyid ahmad as sharif pasha bin sayyid muhammad as sharif al senussi 3rd grand seussi by his second wife khadija daughter of ahmad al rifi by whom he had one son who died in infancy at the libyan embassy cairo 6 june 1955 divorced 20 may 1958 aliya khanum effendi 1913 guney egypt daughter of abdul qadir lamlun asadi pasha for two short periods 1911 1922 and 1955 1958 king idris kept two wives marrying his fifth wife with a view to providing a direct heir king idris fathered four sons and one daughter none of whom survived childhood he and fatima adopted a daughter suleima an algerian orphan who survived them honours edit royal standard of the king of libya idris was grand master of the following libyan orders citation needed order of idris i high order of sayyid muhammad ibn ali al senussi order of independence al senussi national service star al senussi army liberation medal he was a recipient of the following non libyan honours imperial order of the house of osman 1st class ottoman empire 1918 nobility nishan i majidieh 2nd class ottoman empire 1918 collar of the order of al hussein bin ali jordan honorary knight grand cross of the order of the british empire 1954 kbe in 1946 united kingdom collar of the order of muhammad morocco grand cordon of the order of the nile egypt grand cross of the legion of honour france grand cordon of the order of independence tunisia grand cordon of the national order of the cedar lebanon grand cross of the order of merit of the italian republic italy grand cross of the order of the redeemer greece references edit citations edit schulze reinhard 2002 a modern history of the islamic world i b tauris isbn 978 1 86064 822 9 idris i libya biography history encyclopedia britannica retrieved 12 september 2021 muhammad idris ibn al mahdi al sanusi oxford reference schnelzer nadine 2016 libya in the arab spring the constitutional discourse since the fall of gaddafi springer p 31 isbn 978 3 658 11381 0 st john 2012 p 111 vandewalle 2006 p 18 gokkent 2021 vandewalle 2006 p 19 mortimer 2014 p 35 vandewalle 2006 p 26 1 2 3 4 bearman 1986 p 14 vandewalle 2006 p 27 1 2 3 vandewalle 2006 p 27 vandewalle 2006 p 27 st john 2012 p 66 vandewalle 2006 p 27 st john 2012 pp 66 67 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 vandewalle 2006 p 28 1 2 3 4 vandewalle 2006 p 29 bearman 1986 pp 14 15 vandewalle 2006 p 29 vandewalle 2006 p 30 vandewalle 2006 p 31 bearman 1986 pp 15 16 vandewalle 2006 pp 32 33 1 2 3 4 vandewalle 2006 p 36 bearman 1986 p 18 1 2 3 vandewalle 2006 p 37 bearman 1986 p 20 vandewalle 2006 p 38 bearman 1986 p 20 bearman 1986 pp 20 21 vandewalle 2006 p 39 1 2 3 4 5 vandewalle 2006 p 39 1 2 3 4 5 vandewalle 2006 p 42 bearman 1986 p 21 vandewalle 2006 p 40 bearman 1986 p 19 vandewalle 2006 p 44 vandewalle 2006 p 43 bearman 1986 p 3 bearman 1986 p 22 van...