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Text of the page (random words):
and ruby by yukihiro matz matsumoto both released in 1995 microsoft s net framework 2002 is imperative at its core as are its main target languages vb net and c that run on it however microsoft s f a functional language also runs on it examples edit fortran edit fortran 1958 was unveiled as the ibm mathematical formula translating system it was designed for scientific calculations without string handling facilities along with declarations expressions and statements it supported arrays subroutines do loops it succeeded because programming and debugging costs were below computer running costs it was supported by ibm applications at the time were scientific 3 however non ibm vendors also wrote fortran compilers but with a syntax that would likely fail ibm s compiler 3 the american national standards institute ansi developed the first fortran standard in 1966 in 1978 fortran 77 became the standard until 1991 fortran 90 supports records pointers to arrays cobol edit cobol 1959 stands for common business oriented language fortran manipulated symbols it was soon realized that symbols did not need to be numbers so strings were introduced 4 the us department of defense influenced cobol s development with grace hopper being a major contributor the statements were english like and verbose the goal was to design a language so managers could read the programs however the lack of structured statements hindered this goal 5 development of cobol was tightly controlled so dialects did not emerge to require ansi standards as a consequence it was not changed for 15 years until 1974 the 1990s version did make consequential changes like object oriented programming 5 algol edit algol 1960 stands for algorithmic language it had a profound influence on programming language design 6 emerging from a committee of european and american programming language experts it used standard mathematical notation and had a readable structured design algol was first to define its syntax using the backus naur form 6 this led to syntax directed compilers it added features like block structure where variables were local to their block arrays with variable bounds for loops functions recursion 6 algol s direct descendants include pascal modula 2 ada delphi and oberon on one branch on another branch there s c c and java 6 basic edit basic 1964 stands for beginner s all purpose symbolic instruction code it was developed at dartmouth college for all of their students to learn 7 if a student did not go on to a more powerful language the student would still remember basic 7 a basic interpreter was installed in the microcomputers manufactured in the late 1970s as the microcomputer industry grew so did the language 7 basic pioneered the interactive session 7 it offered operating system commands within its environment the new command created an empty slate statements evaluated immediately statements could be programmed by preceding them with a line number the list command displayed the program the run command executed the program however the basic syntax was too simple for large programs 7 recent dialects added structure and object oriented extensions microsoft s visual basic is still widely used and produces a graphical user interface 8 c edit c programming language 1973 got its name because the language bcpl was replaced with b and at t bell labs called the next version c its purpose was to write the unix operating system 9 c is a relatively small language making it easy to write compilers its growth mirrored the hardware growth in the 1980s 9 its growth also was because it has the facilities of assembly language but uses a high level syntax it added advanced features like inline assembler arithmetic on pointers pointers to functions bit operations freely combining complex operators 9 computer memory map c allows the programmer to control in which region of memory data is to be stored global variables and static variables require the fewest clock cycles to store the stack is automatically used for the standard variable declarations heap memory is returned to a pointer variable from the malloc function the global and static data region is located just above the program region the program region is technically called the text region it s where machine instructions are stored the global and static data region is technically two regions 10 one region is called the initialized data segment where variables declared with default values are stored the other region is called the block started by segment where variables declared without default values are stored variables stored in the global and static data region have their addresses set at compile time they retain their values throughout the life of the process the global and static region stores the global variables that are declared on top of outside the main function 11 global variables are visible to main and every other function in the source code on the other hand variable declarations inside of main other functions or within block delimiters are local variables local variables also include formal parameter variables parameter variables are enclosed within the parenthesis of function definitions 12 they provide an interface to the function local variables declared using the static prefix are also stored in the global and static data region 10 unlike global variables static variables are only visible within the function or block static variables always retain their value an example usage would be the function int increment_counter static int counter 0 counter return counter the stack region is a contiguous block of memory located near the top memory address 13 variables placed in the stack are populated from top to bottom 13 a stack pointer is a special purpose register that keeps track of the last memory address populated 13 variables are placed into the stack via the assembly language push instruction therefore the addresses of these variables are set during runtime the method for stack variables to lose their scope is via the pop instruction local variables declared without the static prefix including formal parameter variables 14 are called automatic variables 11 and are stored in the stack 10 they are visible inside the function or block and lose their scope upon exiting the function or block the heap region is located below the stack 10 it is populated from the bottom to the top the operating system manages the heap using a heap pointer and a list of allocated memory blocks 15 like the stack the addresses of heap variables are set during runtime an out of memory error occurs when the heap pointer and the stack pointer meet c provides the malloc library function to allocate heap memory 16 populating the heap with data is an additional copy function variables stored in the heap are economically passed to functions using pointers without pointers the entire block of data would have to be passed to the function via the stack c edit in the 1970s software engineers needed language support to break large projects down into modules 17 one obvious feature was to decompose large projects physically into separate files a less obvious feature was to decompose large projects logically into abstract datatypes 17 at the time languages supported concrete scalar datatypes like integer numbers floating point numbers and strings of characters concrete datatypes have their representation as part of their name 18 abstract datatypes are structures of concrete datatypes with a new name assigned for example a list of integers could be called integer_list in object oriented jargon abstract datatypes are called classes however a class is only a definition no memory is allocated when memory is allocated to a class it s called an object 19 object oriented imperative languages developed by combining the need for classes and the need for safe functional programming 20 a function in an object oriented language is assigned to a class an assigned function is then referred to as a method member function or operation object oriented programming is executing operations on objects 21 object oriented languages support a syntax to model subset superset relationships in set theory an element of a subset inherits all the attributes contained in the superset for example a student is a person therefore the set of students is a subset of the set of persons as a result students inherit all the attributes common to all persons additionally students have unique attributes that other persons don t have object oriented languages model subset superset relationships using inheritance 22 object oriented programming became the dominant language paradigm by the late 1990s 17 c 1985 was originally called c with classes 23 it was designed to expand c s capabilities by adding the object oriented facilities of the language simula 24 an object oriented module is composed of two files the definitions file is called the header file here is a c header file for the grade class in a simple school application grade h used to allow multiple source files to include this header file without duplication errors see https en wikipedia org wiki include_guard ifndef grade_h define grade_h class grade public this is the constructor operation grade const char letter this is a class variable char letter this is a member operation int grade_numeric const char letter this is a class variable int numeric endif a constructor operation is a function with the same name as the class name 25 it is executed when the calling operation executes the new statement a module s other file is the source file here is a c source file for the grade class in a simple school application grade cpp include grade h grade grade const char letter reference the object using the keyword this this letter letter this is temporal cohesion this numeric grade_numeric letter int grade grade_numeric const char letter if letter a letter a return 4 else if letter b letter b return 3 else if letter c letter c return 2 else if letter d letter d return 1 else if letter f letter f return 0 else return 1 here is a c header file for the person class in a simple school application person h ifndef person_h define person_h class person public person const char name const char name endif here is a c source file for the person class in a simple school application person cpp include person h person person const char name this name name here is a c header file for the student class in a simple school application student h ifndef student_h define student_h include person h include grade h a student is a subset of person class student public person public student const char name student grade grade endif here is a c source file for the student class in a simple school application student cpp include student h include person h student student const char name execute the constructor of the person superclass person name nothing else to do student student deallocate grade s memory to avoid memory leaks delete this grade here is a driver program for demonstration student_dvr cpp include iostream include student h int main void student student new student the student student grade new grade a std cout notice student inherits person s name student name numeric grade student grade numeric n deallocate student s memory to avoid memory leaks delete student return 0 here is a makefile to compile everything makefile all student_dvr clean rm student_dvr o student_dvr student_dvr cpp grade o student o person o c student_dvr cpp grade o student o person o o student_dvr grade o grade cpp grade h c c grade cpp student o student cpp student h c c student cpp person o person cpp person h c c person cpp sources edit joseph goguen and grant malcolm algebraic semantics of imperative programs mit press 1966 isbn 9780262071727 see also edit functional programming history of programming languages list of imperative programming languages reactive programming side effect computer science notes edit reconfigurable computing is a notable exception references edit jain anisha 2022 12 10 javascript promises is there a better approach medium archived from the original on 2022 12 20 retrieved 2022 12 20 imperative programming overview of the oldest programming paradigm ionos digitalguide 21 may 2021 archived from the original on 2022 05 03 retrieved 2022 05 03 1 2 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 16 isbn 0 201 71012 9 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 24 isbn 0 201 71012 9 1 2 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 25 isbn 0 201 71012 9 1 2 3 4 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 19 isbn 0 201 71012 9 1 2 3 4 5 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 30 isbn 0 201 71012 9 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 31 isbn 0 201 71012 9 1 2 3 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 37 isbn 0 201 71012 9 1 2 3 4 memory layout of c programs 12 september 2011 archived from the original on 6 november 2021 retrieved 25 may 2022 1 2 kernighan brian w ritchie dennis m 1988 the c programming language second edition prentice hall p 31 isbn 0 13 110362 8 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 128 isbn 0 201 71012 9 1 2 3 kerrisk michael 2010 the linux programming interface no starch press p 121 isbn 978 1 59327 220 3 kerrisk michael 2010 the linux programming interface no starch press p 122 isbn 978 1 59327 220 3 kernighan brian w ritchie dennis m 1988 the c programming language second edition prentice hall p 185 isbn 0 13 110362 8 kernighan brian w ritchie dennis m 1988 the c programming language second edition prentice hall p 187 isbn 0 13 110362 8 1 2 3 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 38 isbn 0 201 71012 9 stroustrup bjarne 2013 the c programming language fourth edition addison wesley p 65 isbn 978 0 321 56384 2 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 193 isbn 0 201 71012 9 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 39 isbn 0 201 71012 9 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 35 isbn 0 201 71012 9 wilson leslie b 2001 comparative programming languages third edition addison wesley p 192 isbn 0 201 71012 9 stroustrup bjarne 2013 the c programming language fourth edition addison wesley p 22 isbn 978 0 321 56384 2 stroustrup bjarne 2013 the c programming language fourth edition addison wesley p 21 isbn 978 0 321 56384 2 stroustrup bjarne 2013 the c programming language fourth edition addison wesley p 49 isbn 978 0 321 56384 2 pratt terrence w and marvin v zelkowitz programming languages design and implementation 3r...