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gh centering iə អៀ អ៊ា ɨə អឿ uə អួ mid centering eə អ៊ាក់ oə អ័រ open centering aə អើ mid closing ei អី əɨ əw អ៊ៅ open closing ai ae អៃ អែ aɨ aw អៅ ao អោ in addition some diphthongs and triphthongs are analysed as a vowel nucleus plus a semivowel j or w coda because they cannot be followed by a final consonant these include with short monophthongs ɨw əw aj aw uj with long monophthongs əːj aːj with long diphthongs iəj iəw ɨəj aoj aəj and uəj 36 independent vowels of khmer 17 khmer vowels ipa ឥ ʔe ឦ ʔej ឧ ʔu ឩ ʔuː ឪ ʔɜw ʔɨw ឫ rɨ ឬ rɨː ឭ lɨ ឮ lɨː ឯ ʔae ឰ ʔaj ឱ ឲ ʔao ឳ ʔaw the independent vowels are a feature of the khmer script they are the vowel graphemes that can exist without a preceding or trailing written consonant the independent vowels may be used as monosyllabic words or as the initial syllables in longer words khmer words as written never begin with regular vowels they can however begin with independent vowels example ឰដ៏ ឧទាហរណ៍ ឧត្តម ឱកាស syllable structure edit a khmer syllable begins with a single consonant or else with a cluster of two or rarely three consonants the only possible clusters of three consonants at the start of a syllable are str skr 37 and with aspirated consonants analysed as two consonant sequences stʰ lkʰ there are 85 possible two consonant clusters including pʰ etc analysed as ph etc all the clusters are shown in the following table phonetically i e superscript ʰ can mark either contrastive or non contrastive aspiration see above p ɓ t ɗ c k ʔ m n ɲ ŋ j l r s h ʋ t h k h t r k r p pt pɗ pc pk pʔ pʰn pʰɲ pʰŋ pʰj pʰl pr ps pʰ t tp tɓ tk tʔ tʰm tʰn tʰŋ tʰj tʰl tr tʰ tʰʋ c cp cɓ cɗ ck cʔ cʰm cʰn cʰŋ cʰl cr cʰ cʰʋ cʰk k kp kɓ kt kɗ kc kʔ kʰm kʰn kʰɲ kŋ kʰj kʰl kr ks kʰ kʰʋ s sp sɓ st sɗ sk sʔ sm sn sɲ sŋ sl sr sʋ stʰ str skr ʔ ʔʋ m mt mɗ mc mʔ mn mɲ mj ml mr ms mh l lp lɓ lk lʔ lm lŋ lh lʋ lkʰ slight vowel epenthesis occurs in the clusters consisting of a plosive followed by ʔ b d in those beginning ʔ m l and in the cluster kŋ 38 8 9 after the initial consonant or consonant cluster comes the syllabic nucleus which is one of the vowels listed above this vowel may end the syllable or may be followed by a coda which is a single consonant if the syllable is stressed and the vowel is short there must be a final consonant all consonant sounds except b d r s and the aspirates can appear as the coda although final r is heard in some dialects most notably in northern khmer 39 a minor syllable unstressed syllable preceding the main syllable of a word has a structure of cv crv cvn or crvn where c is a consonant v a vowel and n a nasal consonant the vowels in such syllables are usually short in conversation they may be reduced to ə although in careful or formal speech including on television and radio they are clearly articulated an example of such a word is មនុស្ស mɔnuh mɔnɨh mĕəʾnuh person pronounced mɔˈnuh or more casually məˈnuh 38 10 stress edit stress in khmer falls on the final syllable of a word 40 because of this predictable pattern stress is non phonemic in khmer it does not distinguish different meanings primary stress falls on the final syllable with secondary stress on every second syllable from the end thus in a three syllable word the first syllable has secondary stress in a four syllable word the second syllable has secondary stress in a five syllable word the first and third syllables have secondary stress and so on 38 10 11 long polysyllables are not often used in conversation 17 12 most khmer words consist of either one or two syllables in most native disyllabic words the first syllable is a minor fully unstressed syllable such words have been described as sesquisyllabic i e as having one and a half syllables there are also some disyllabic words in which the first syllable does not behave as a minor syllable but takes secondary stress most such words are compounds but some are single morphemes generally loanwords an example is ភាសា language pronounced ˌpʰiəˈsaː 38 10 words with three or more syllables if they are not compounds are mostly loanwords usually derived from pali sanskrit or more recently french they are nonetheless adapted to khmer stress patterns 41 compounds however preserve the stress patterns of the constituent words thus សំបុកចាប the name of a kind of cookie literally bird s nest is pronounced sɑmˌbok ˈcaːp with secondary stress on the second rather than the first syllable because it is composed of the words sɑmˈbok nest and caːp bird 41 phonation and tone edit see also tonogenesis khmer once had a phonation distinction in its vowels but this now survives only in the most archaic dialect western khmer 5 the distinction arose historically when vowels after old khmer voiced consonants became breathy voiced and diphthongised for example kaa ɡaa became kaa ɡe̤a when consonant voicing was lost the distinction was maintained by the vowel kaa ke̤a later the phonation disappeared as well kaː kiə 31 these processes explain the origin of what are now called a series and o series consonants in the khmer script although most cambodian dialects are not tonal the colloquial phnom penh dialect has developed a tonal contrast level versus peaking tone as a by product of the elision of r 31 intonation edit intonation often conveys semantic context in khmer as in distinguishing declarative statements questions and exclamations the available grammatical means of making such distinctions are not always used or may be ambiguous for example the final interrogative particle ទេ teː can also serve as an emphasising or in some cases negating particle 42 the intonation pattern of a typical khmer declarative phrase is a steady rise throughout followed by an abrupt drop on the last syllable 37 ខ្ញុំមិនចង់បានទេ kʰɲom mɨn cɑŋ baːn teː i don t want it 37 other intonation contours signify a different type of phrase such as the full doubt interrogative similar to yes no questions in english full doubt interrogatives remain fairly even in tone throughout but rise sharply towards the end អ្នកចង់ទៅលេងសៀមរាបទេ neaʔ cɑŋ tɨw leːŋ siəm riəp ꜛteː do you want to go to siem reap 37 exclamatory phrases follow the typical steadily rising pattern but rise sharply on the last syllable instead of falling 37 សៀវភៅនេះថ្លៃណាស់ siəw pʰɨw nih tʰlaj ꜛnah this book is expensive 37 grammar edit main article khmer grammar khmer is primarily an analytic language with no inflection syntactic relations are mainly determined by word order old and middle khmer used particles to mark grammatical categories and many of these have survived in modern khmer but are used sparingly mostly in literary or formal language 42 khmer makes extensive use of auxiliary verbs directionals and serial verb construction colloquial khmer is a zero copula language instead preferring predicative adjectives and even predicative nouns unless using a copula for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity in more complex sentences basic word order is subject verb object svo although subjects are often dropped prepositions are used rather than postpositions 43 topic comment constructions are common and the language is generally head initial modifiers follow the words they modify some grammatical processes are still not fully understood by western scholars for example it is not clear if certain features of khmer grammar such as actor nominalisation should be treated as a morphological process or a purely syntactic device 44 46 74 and some derivational morphology seems purely decorative and performs no known syntactic work 44 53 lexical categories have been hard to define in khmer 44 360 henri maspero an early scholar of khmer claimed the language had no parts of speech 44 while a later scholar judith jacob posited four parts of speech and innumerable particles 45 331 john haiman on the other hand identifies a couple dozen parts of speech in khmer with the caveat that khmer words have the freedom to perform a variety of syntactic functions depending on such factors as word order relevant particles location within a clause intonation and context 44 some of the more important lexical categories and their function are demonstrated in the following example sentence taken from a hospital brochure 44 378 លោក loːk you resp pn អ្នក nĕəʔ you fam pn ផ្ដល់ pɗɑl to provide verb ឈាម cʰiəm blood noun ទាំង teaŋ every ptcl អស់ ʔɑh all adj ត្រូវ trəw must aux តែ tae to have to int ទទួល tɔtuəl to receive verb នៅ nəw om ការ kaː nmlz ពិនិត្យ pinɨt to examine verb រាង riəŋ shape noun កាយ kaːj body noun និង nɨŋ and cnj ផ្ដល់ pʰɗɑl to provide verb នៅ nəw om ប្រវត្តិ prɑʋɔət history noun សុខភាព sokʰapʰiəp health adj ចា ciə to be cop មុន mun before adv ចា ciə to be cop សិន sən first adv លោក អ្នក ផ្ដល់ ឈាម ទាំង អស់ ត្រូវ តែ ទទួល នៅ ការ ពិនិត្យ រាង កាយ និង ផ្ដល់ នៅ ប្រវត្តិ សុខភាព ចា មុន ចា សិន loːk nĕəʔ pɗɑl cʰiəm teaŋ ʔɑh trəw tae tɔtuəl nəw kaː pinɨt riəŋ kaːj nɨŋ pʰɗɑl nəw prɑʋɔət sokʰapʰiəp ciə mun ciə sən you resp you fam to provide blood every all must to have to to receive to examine shape body and to provide history health to be before to be first pn pn verb noun ptcl adj aux int verb om nmlz verb noun noun cnj verb om noun adj cop adv cop adv all blood donors must pass a physical examination and provide a health history first before they can give blood morphology edit modern khmer is an isolating language which means that it uses little productive morphology there is some derivation by means of prefixes and infixes but this is a remnant of old khmer and not always productive in the modern language 46 khmer morphology is evidence of a historical process through which the language was at some point in the past changed from being an agglutinative language to adopting an isolating typology 47 affixed forms are lexicalised and cannot be used productively to form new words 38 311 below are some of the most common affixes with examples as given by huffman 38 312 316 type affix function word meaning affixed word meaning prefix p causative ដាច់ ɗac ដើម ɗaəm broken torn original first ផ្ដាច់ pɗac ផ្ដើម pɗaəm to tear apart to start begin trans ɓvn pvn ដើរ ɗaə បែក ɓaek រៀន riən to walk to break intrans to study learn បណ្ដើរ ɓɑn ˈɗaə បំបែក ɓɑm ˈɓaek បង្រៀន ɓɑŋ ˈriən to take for a walk to cause to break to teach prv reciprocal ខាំ kʰam ដូច ɗouc to bite similar ប្រខាំ prɑ kʰam ប្រដូច prɑ ɗouc to bite each other to compare rv nominalised បាំង ɓaŋ លត់ lŭət to hide to extinguish របាំង rɔ ˈɓaŋ រលត់ rɔ ˈlŭət barrier a screen extinguished v m instrumental រស់ rŭəh ហូប houp to be alive to live to eat អម្រស់ ʔɑm ˈrɑh ម្ហូប mhoup job profession food meal c vn ដើរ ɗaə ពាក់ pĕəʔ ហូរ hou to walk to wear to thread to flow អណ្ដើរ ʔɑn ˈɗaə ចំពាក់ cɑm ˈpĕəʔ ចង្ហូរ cɑŋ ˈhou ladder stairs bond tie ditch groove infix vm causative ស្លាប់ slap ស្អាត sʔaːt to die to be clean សម្លាប់ sɑm ˈlap សំអាត sɑm ˈʔaːt to kill to clean vm n nominalised ជឿ cɨə ដើរ ɗaə ដឹង ɗəŋ to believe to walk to know something ជំនឿ cum ˈnɨə ដំណើរ ɗɑm ˈnaə ដំណឹង ɗɑm ˈnəŋ belief a trip journey information rv m agentive ចាំ cam បាញ់ ɓaɲ ផឹក pʰək to wait to watch over guard to shoot a bow or gun hunt to drink ឆ្មាំ cʰmam ប្រមាញ់ prɑ ˈmaɲ ប្រមឹក prɑ ˈmək guard watchman hunter drunkard alcoholic ɓ instrumental resultative ចាប់ cap រស់ rŭəh លេង leiŋ to grasp to seize to be alive to live to play enjoy ច្បាប់ cɓap របស់ rɔ ˈɓɑh ល្បែង lɓaeŋ law rule thing property tool game n locative specializing ចាំ cam ពាល់ pŏəl to wait to watch over guard to touch lightly ឆ្នាំ cʰnam ភ្នាល់ phnŏəl year unit of time to bet to gamble compounding in khmer is a common derivational process that takes two forms coordinate compounds and repetitive compounds coordinate compounds join two unbound morphemes independent words of similar meaning to form a compound signifying a concept more general than either word alone 38 296 coordinate compounds join either two nouns or two verbs repetitive compounds one of the most productive derivational features of khmer use reduplication of an entire word to derive words whose meaning depends on the class of the reduplicated word 38 185 a repetitive compound of a noun indicates plurality or generality while that of an adjectival verb could mean either an intensification or plurality coordinate compounds 38 296 297 ឪពុក ʔəwpuk father ម្តាយ mɗaːj mother ឪពុកម្តាយ ʔəwpuk mɗaːj parents ឪពុក ម្តាយ ឪពុកម្តាយ ʔəwpuk mɗaːj ʔəwpuk mɗaːj father mother parents ដឹក ɗək to transport នាំ nɔəm to bring ដឹកនាំ ɗək nŏəm to lead ដឹក នាំ ដឹកនាំ ɗək nɔəm ɗək nŏəm to transport to bring to lead repetitive compounds 38 185 185 ឆាប់ cʰap fast ឆាប់ៗ cʰap cʰap very fast quickly ឆាប់ ឆាប់ៗ cʰap cʰap cʰap fast very fast quickly ស្រី srəj women ស្រីៗ srəj srəj women women in general ស្រី ស្រីៗ srəj srəj srəj women women women in general nouns and pronouns edit khmer nouns do not inflect for grammatical gender or singular plural there are no articles but indefiniteness is often expressed by the word for one មួយ muəj following the noun as in ឆ្កែមួយ cʰkae muəj a dog plurality can be marked by postnominal particles numerals or reduplication of a following adjective which although similar to intensification is usually not ambiguous due to context 48 ឆ្កែ cʰkae dog ច្រើន craən many ឆ្កែ ច្រើន cʰkae craən dog many many dogs ឆ្កែ cʰkae dog ពីរ piː two ឆ្កែ ពីរ cʰkae piː dog two two dogs ឆ្កែ cʰkae dog ធំ tʰom large ធំ tʰom large ឆ្កែ ធំ ធំ cʰkae tʰom tʰom dog large large large dogs classifying particles are used after numerals but are not always obligatory as they are in thai or chinese for example and are often dropped in colloquial speech khmer nouns are divided into two groups mass nouns which take classifiers and specific nouns which do not the overwhelming majority are mass nouns 38 67 68 ខ្មៅដៃ kʰmawɗaj pencil ពីរ piː two ដើម ɗaəm clf long cylindrical object ខ្មៅដៃ ពីរ ដើម kʰmawɗaj piː ɗaəm pencil two clf long cylindrical object two pencils possession is colloquially expressed by word order the possessor is placed after the thing that is possessed 44 160 alternatively in more complex sentences or when emphasis is required a possessive construction using the word របស់ rɔːbɑh lə bɑh property object may be employed in formal and literary contexts the possessive particle នៃ nɨj is used 38 358 ពួកម៉ាក puəʔmaːʔ friend ខ្ញុំ kʰɲom i ពួកម៉ាក ខ្ញុំ puəʔmaːʔ kʰɲom friend i my friend ពួកម៉ាក puəʔmaːʔ friend របស់ rɔːɓɑh property ខ្ញុំ kʰɲom i ពួកម៉ាក របស់ ខ្ញុំ puəʔmaːʔ rɔːɓɑh kʰɲom friend property i my friend ពួកម៉ាក puəʔmaːʔ friend នៃ nɨj of ខ្ញុំ kʰɲom i ពួកម៉ាក នៃ ខ្ញុំ puəʔmaːʔ nɨj kʰɲom friend of i my friend pronouns are subject to a complicated system of social register the choice of pronoun depending on the perceived relationships between speaker audience and referent see social registers below khmer exhibits pronoun avoidance so kinship terms nicknames and proper names are often used instead of pronouns including for the first person among intimates subject pronouns are frequently dropped in colloquial conversation 48 adjectives verbs and verb phrases may be made into nouns by t...