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ntral and eastern part of asturias and on occasion provided help to one or another contender for the throne by providing refuge to alfonso ii in alava after his flight the support for nepociano s rebellion in some asturian areas and the adherence of galicians to the cause of ramiro i finally other evidence suggests important internal transformations occurred during this time rebellions of freedmen serbi servilis orico and libertini according to the chronicles occurred during the reign of aurelio i the property relationship between master and slave broke down progressively this fact together with the growing role of the individual and the restricted family to the detriment of the extended family is another indication that a new society was emerging in asturias at the end of the eighth and beginning of the ninth centuries fruela i 757 768 was succeeded by aurelius 768 774 son of fruela of cantabria and peter of cantabria s grandson who would establish the court in what is today the district of san martín del rey aurelio which previously belonged to langreo silo 774 783 succeeded aurelio after his death and transferred the court to pravia silo was married to adosinda one of the daughters of alfonso i and therefore pelayo s granddaughter alfonso ii was elected king after silo s death but mauregato organized a strong opposition and forced the new king to withdraw to lands in alava his mother munia was basque obtaining the asturian throne the king despite the bad reputation attributed by history had good relations with beatus of liébana perhaps the most important cultural figure of the kingdom and supported him in his fight against adoptionism legend says that mauregato was alfonso i s bastard son with a moorish woman and attributes to him the tribute of a hundred maidens he was succeeded by bermudo i aurelio s brother he was called the deacon although he probably received only minor vows bermudo abdicated after a military defeat ending his life in a monastery recognition and later solidification edit it was not until king alfonso ii 791 842 that the kingdom was firmly established after silo s subjugated gallaecia and confirmed territorial gains in western basque country 23 ties with the carolingian franks also got closer and more frequent with alfonso ii s envoys presenting charlemagne with spoils of war campaign of lisbon 797 alfonso ii introduced himself as an emperor charlemagne s man 24 suggesting some kind of suzerainty 25 during alfonso ii s reign a probable reaction against indigenous traditions took place in order to strengthen his state and grip on power by establishing in the asturian court the order and ceremonies of the former visigoth kingdom 24 around this time the holy bones of james son of zebedee were declared to have been found in galicia at iria flavia they were considered authentic by a contemporary pope of rome however during the asturian period the final resting place of eulalia of mérida located in oviedo became the primary religious site and focus of devotion alfonso ii also repopulated parts of galicia león and castile and incorporated them into the kingdom of asturias while establishing influence over parts of the basques the first capital city was cangas de onís near the site of the battle of cavadonga then in silo s time it was moved to pravia alfonso ii chose his birthplace of oviedo as the capital of the kingdom circa 789 ramiro i of asturias ramiro i began his reign by capturing several other claimants to the throne blinding them and then confining them to monasteries as a warrior he managed to defeat a viking invasion after the vikings had landed at corunna and also fought several battles against the moors alfonso iii of asturias when he succeeded his father ramiro ordoño i 850 866 repressed a major revolt amongst the basques in the east of the kingdom in 859 ordoño besieged the fortress of albelda built by musa ibn musa of the banu qasi who had rebelled against cordoba and became master of zaragoza tudela huesca and toledo musa attempted to lift the siege in alliance with his brother in law garcía iñiguez the king of pamplona whose small realm was threatened by the eastwards expansion of the asturian monarchy in the battle that followed musa was defeated and lost valuable treasures in the process some of which were sent as a gift to charles the bald of francia seven days after the victory albelda fell and as the chronicler records its warriors were killed by the sword and the place itself was destroyed down to its foundations musa was wounded in the battle and died in 862 863 soon thereafter musa s son lubb governor of toledo submitted himself to the asturian king for the rest of ordoño s reign when alfonso iii s sons forced his abdication in 910 the kingdom of asturias split into three separate kingdoms león galicia and asturias the three kingdoms were eventually reunited in 924 león and galicia in 914 asturias later under the crown of león it continued under that name until incorporated into the kingdom of castile in 1230 after ferdinand iii became joint king of the two kingdoms viking raids edit the vikings invaded galicia in 844 but were decisively defeated by ramiro i at corunna 8 many of the vikings casualties were caused by the galicians ballistas powerful torsion powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows 8 26 seventy of the vikings longships were captured on the beach and burned 8 27 28 a few months later another fleet took seville the vikings found in seville a population which was still largely gothic and romano spanish 29 the gothic elements were important in the andalusian emirate 30 musa ibn musa who took a leading part in the defeat of the vikings at tablada es belonged to a powerful muwallad family of gothic descent citation needed vikings returned to galicia in 859 during the reign of ordoño i ordoño was at the moment engaged against his constant enemies the moors but a count of the province don pedro attacked the vikings and defeated them 31 inflicting severe losses upon them 32 ordoño s successor alfonso iii strove to protect the coast against attacks from vikings or moors in 968 gunrod of norway attacked galicia with 100 ships and 8 000 warriors 33 they roamed freely for years and even occupied santiago de compostela a galician nobleman of visigothic descent count gonzalo sánchez es ended the viking adventure in 971 when he launched an attack with a powerful army that defeated the vikings in a bloody battle and captured gunrod who was subsequently executed along with his followers religion edit remnants of megalithic and celtic paganism edit the santa cruz dolmen burial place of chieftains of the eastern asturian area since megalithic times although the earliest evidence of christian worship in asturias dates from the 5th century evangelisation did not make any substantial progress until the middle of the sixth century when hermits like turibius of liébana and monks of the saint fructuoso order gradually settled in the cantabrian mountains and began preaching the christian doctrine christianisation progressed slowly in asturias and did not necessarily supplant the ancient pagan divinities as elsewhere in europe the new religion coexisted syncretically with features of the ancient beliefs in the sixth century bishop san martín de braga complained in his work de correctione rusticorum about the galician peasants being attached to the pre christian cults many demons who were expelled from the heavens settled in the sea in the rivers fountains and forests and have come to be worshipped as gods by ignorant people to them they do their sacrifices in the sea they invoke neptune in the rivers the lamias in the fountains the nymphs and in the forests diana 34 the yew tree is still very important in asturian folklore where it stands as a link to the afterlife and is commonly found planted beside churches and cemeteries in the middle of the sella valley where cangas de onís is located there was a dolmen area dating back to the megalithic era and was likely built between 4000 and 2000 bc chieftains from the surrounding regions were ritually buried here particularly in the santa cruz dolmen such practices survived the roman and visigothic conquests even in the eighth century king favila was buried there along with the bodies of tribal leaders although the asturian monarchy fostered the christianisation of this site by constructing a church to this day there are still pagan traditions linked with the santa cruz dolmen it is said that xanas asturian fairies appear to visitors and magical properties are ascribed to the soil of the place according to an inscription found in the santa cruz church it was consecrated in 738 and was presided by a vates called asterio the word vates is uncommon in catholic documents and epitaphs where the word presbyterus for christian priests is preferred however vates was used in latin to denote a poet who was clairvoyant and according to the ancient greek writers strabo diodorus siculus and posidonius the vates ουατεις were also one of three classes of celtic priesthood the other two being the druids and the bards some historians think that asterio held a religious office which combined elements of paganism and christianity while others think he may be linked to the brythonic refugees that settled in britonia galicia in the 6th century the parrochiale suevorum an administrative document from the kingdom of the suebi states that the lands of asturias belonged to the britonian see and some features of celtic christianity spread to northern spain this is evidenced by the celtic tonsure which the visigothic bishops who participated in the fourth council of toledo condemned 35 still extant galician legends relate to monks who travelled by sea to the paradise islands like those of saint amaro trezenzonio or the legend of ero of armenteira these stories have many parallels with those of brendan the navigator malo of wales and the stories of the irish immrama asturian kings promoted christianity and but also based their power on indigenous religious traditions like other medieval european kings such as penda of mercia or widukind but also relied on christian sacred scriptures in particular the books of revelation ezekiel and daniel and the church fathers these furnished the new monarchy with its foundational myths they did not need to draft new laws since the visigothic code was the referential code at least since the arrival of new influences including exiles prisoners from the central area of al andalus in the 770s along with their mixed berber arabic and gothic legacy this combined with governmental and religious ideas imported from charlemagne s frankish kingdom alcuin beatus of liébana adoptionism edit main article spanish adoptionism the foundations of asturian culture and that of christian spain in the high middle ages were laid during the reigns of silo and mauregatus when the asturian kings submitted to the authority of the umayyad emirs of the caliphate of córdoba the most prominent christian scholar in the kingdom of asturias of this period was beatus of liébana whose works left an indelible mark on the christian culture of the reconquista beatus map beatus was directly involved in the debate surrounding adoptionism which argued that jesus was born a man and was adopted by god and acquired a divine dimension only after his passion and resurrection beatus refuted this theological position championed by such figures as elipando bishop of toledo the adoptionist theology had its roots in gothic arianism which denied the divinity of jesus and in hellenistic religion with examples of heroes like heracles who after their death attained the apotheosis likewise as elipandus s bishopric of toledo was at the time within the muslim caliphate of cordoba islamic beliefs which acknowledged jesus as a prophet but not as the son of god influenced the formation of adoptionism however the adoptionist theology was opposed strongly by beatus from his abbey in santo toribio de liébana at the same time beatus strengthened the links among asturias the holy see and the carolingian empire and was supported in his theological struggle by the pope and by his friend alcuin of york an anglo saxon scholar who had settled among the carolingian court in aachen millennialism edit the angel of the fifth trumpet an example of a beatus manuscript the most transcendental works of beatus were his commentaries to apocalypse which were copied in later centuries in manuscripts called beati about which the italian writer umberto eco said their splendid images gave birth to the most relevant iconographic happening in the history of mankind 36 beatus develops in them a personal interpretation of the book of revelation accompanied by quotes from the old testament the church fathers and fascinating illustrations in these commentaries a new interpretation of the apocalyptic accounts is given babylon no longer represents the city of rome but córdoba seat of the umayyad emirs of al andalus the beast once a symbol of the roman empire now stands for the islamic invaders who during this time threatened to destroy western christianity and who raided territories of the asturian kingdom the prologue to the second book of the commentaries contains the beatus map one of the best examples of a mappa mundi of the high medieval culture the purpose of this map was not to represent the world cartographically but to illustrate the apostles diaspora in the first decades of christianity beatus took data from the works of isidore of seville ptolemy and the bible the world was represented as a land disc surrounded by the ocean and divided in three parts asia upper semicircle europe lower left quadrant and africa lower right quadrant the mediterranean sea europe africa the nile river africa asia the aegean sea and the bosphorus europe asia were set as the boundaries between the different continents beatus believed that the apocalypse described in the book of revelation was imminent which would be followed by 1290 years of domination by the antichrist beatus followed the views of augustine of hippo whose work the city of god influenced the commentaries which followed the premise that the history of the world was structured in six ages the first five ones extended from the creation of adam to the passion of jesus while the sixth subsequent to christ ends with the unleashing of the events prophesied in the book of revelation for beatus of liébana the whore of babylon revelation 17 4 5 37 a christian allegory of evil was incarnated by the emirate of córdoba millennialist movements were very common in europe at that time between 760 and 780 a series of cosmic phenomena stirred up panic among the population of gaul john a visionary monk predicted the coming of the last judgment during the reign of charlemagne in this time the apocalypse of daniel appeared a syriac text redacted during the rule of...