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a nova ລາວ lietuvių malagasy македонски bahasa melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ नेपाल भाषा nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ polski piemontèis پنجابی português runa simi русский संस्कृतम् srpskohrvatski српскохрватски simple english српски srpski svenska kiswahili ไทย türkçe українська اردو tiếng việt 吴语 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia language family of asia kra dai tai kadai daic geographic distribution southern china hainan island southeast asia and northeast india ethnicity kra dai peoples native speakers est 93 million linguistic classification one of the world s primary language families proto language proto kra dai subdivisions kra kam sui biao lakkia be jizhao tai hlai jiamao language codes glottolog taik1256 distribution of the tai kadai language family kra kam sui be hlai northern tai central tai southwestern tai the kra dai languages ˈ k r ɑː d aɪ krah dy also known as tai kadai ˈ t aɪ k ə d aɪ ty kə dy and daic ˈ d aɪ ɪ k dy ik are a language family in mainland southeast asia southern china and northeastern india all languages in the family are tonal including thai and lao the national languages of thailand and laos respectively 1 around 93 million people speak kra dai languages 60 of those speak thai 2 ethnologue lists 95 languages in the family with 62 of these being in the tai branch 3 names edit the name kra dai was proposed by weera ostapirat 2000 as kra and dai are the reconstructed autonyms of the kra and tai branches respectively 4 kra dai has since been used by the majority of specialists working on southeast asian linguistics including norquest 2007 5 pittayaporn 2009 6 7 baxter sagart 2014 8 and enfield comrie 2015 9 the name tai kadai was used in older references and continues to be used in ethnologue and glottolog but ostapirat 2000 and others suggest that it is problematic and confusing preferring the name kra dai instead 4 tai kadai comes from an obsolete bifurcation of the family into two branches tai and kadai which had first been proposed by paul k benedict 1942 10 in 1942 benedict placed three kra languages gelao laqua qabiao and lachi together with hlai in a group that he called kadai from ka meaning person in gelao and laqua and dai a form of a hlai autonym 10 benedict s 1942 kadai group was based on his observation that kra and hlai languages have austronesian like numerals however this classification is now universally rejected as obsolete after ostapirat 2000 demonstrated the coherence of the kra branch which does not subgroup with the hlai branch as benedict 1942 had proposed kadai is sometimes used to refer to the entire kra dai family including by solnit 1988 11 12 adding to the confusion some other references which restrict the usage of kadai to only the kra branch of the family the name daic is used by roger blench 2008 13 origin edit migration route of the kra dai people from their original homeland of taiwan via china to mainland southeast asia according to matthias gerner s northeast to southwest hypothesis 14 james r chamberlain 2016 proposes that the tai kadai kra dai language family was formed as early as the 12th century bce in the middle of the yangtze basin coinciding roughly with the establishment of the chu fiefdom and the beginning of the zhou dynasty 15 the high diversity of kra dai languages in southern china especially in guizhou and hainan points to that being an origin of the kra dai language family founding the nations that later became thailand and laos in what had been austroasiatic territory genetic and linguistic analyses show great homogeneity among kra dai speaking people in thailand 16 although the position of kra dai in relation to austronesian is still contested some propose that kra dai and austronesian are genetically connected weera ostapirat 2005 sets out a series of regular sound correspondences between them assuming a model of a primary split between the two they would then be co ordinate branches 17 ostapirat 2013 continues to maintain that kra dai and austronesian are sister language families based on certain phonological correspondences 18 on the other hand laurent sagart 2008 proposes that kra dai is a later form of what he calls fatk formosan ancestor of tai kadai a branch of austronesian belonging to the subgroup puluqic developed in taiwan whose speakers migrated back to the mainland to guangdong hainan and north vietnam around the second half of the 3rd millennium bce 19 upon their arrival in this region they underwent linguistic contact with an unknown population resulting in a partial relexification of fatk vocabulary 20 erica brindley 2015 supports sagart s hypothesis arguing that the radically different kra dai history of migration to the mainland as opposed to the philippines for proto austronesian and extended contact with austro asiatic and sinitic speakers would make the relationship appear more distant she also suggests that the presence of only the most basic austronesian vocabulary in kra dai makes this scenario of relexification more plausible 21 besides various concrete pieces of evidence for a kra dai existence in present day guangdong remnants of kra dai languages spoken further north can be found in unearthed inscriptional materials and non han substrata in min and wu chinese citation needed wolfgang behr 2002 2006 2009 2017 22 23 24 points out that most non sinitic words found in chu inscriptional materials are of kra dai origin for example the chu graph for one once written as oc nnəŋ in the e jun qijie 鄂君啟筯 bronze tally and in warring states bamboo inscriptions which represents a kra dai areal word compare proto tai hnïŋ hnɯŋ siamese 22 nɯŋ dai 33 nɯŋ longzhou nəəŋ a etc one once 25 in the early 1980s wei qingwen 韦庆稳 a zhuang linguist proposed that the old yue language recorded in the song of the yue boatman is in fact a language ancestral to zhuang 26 wei used reconstructed old chinese for the characters and discovered that the resulting vocabulary showed strong resemblance to modern zhuang 27 later zhengzhang shangfang 1991 followed wei s proposal but used thai script for comparison since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms not found in modern pronunciation 27 28 zhengzhang notes that evening night dark bears the c tone in wuming zhuang xam c2 and ɣam c2 night the item raa normally means we inclusive but in some places e g tai lue and white tai it means i 29 however laurent sagart criticizes zhengzhang s interpretation as anachronistic because however archaic the thai script is the thai language was only written 2 000 years after the song had been recorded even if proto kam tai had emerged by the 6th century bce its pronunciation would have been substantially different from thai 30 map of the chinese plain at the start of the warring states period in the 5th century bc internal classification edit example of the divergence among the kra dai languages using the word for tooth kra dai consists of at least five well established branches namely kra kam sui tai be and hlai ostapirat 2005 109 tai southern china and southeast asia kra southern china northern vietnam called kadai in ethnologue and geyang 仡央 in chinese kam sui guizhou and guangxi china be hainan possibly also includes jizhao of guangdong hlai hainan chinese linguists have also proposed a kam tai group that includes kam sui tai and be 31 32 kra dai languages that are not securely classified and may constitute independent kra dai branches include the following lakkia and biao which may or may not subgroup with each other are difficult to classify due to aberrant vocabulary but are sometimes classified as sisters of kam sui solnit 1988 11 jiamao of southern hainan china is an aberrant kra dai language traditionally classified as a hlai language although jiamao contains many words of non hlai origin jizhao of guangdong china is currently unclassified within kra dai but appears to be most closely related to be ostapirat 1998 33 kra dai languages of mixed origins are hezhang buyi northern tai and kra e northern tai and pinghua chinese caolan northern tai and central tai jiamao hlai and other unknown elements austroasiatic edmondson and solnit 1988 edit an early but influential classification with the traditional kam tai clade was edmondson and solnit s classification from 1988 12 34 kra dai kra geyang hlai kam tai lakkia biao kam sui be tai this classification is also used by liang and zhang 1996 35 chamberlain 2016 38 36 and ethnologue though by 2009 lakkia was made a third branch of kam tai and biao was moved into kam sui ostapirat 2005 norquest 2007 edit weera ostapirat 2005 128 suggests the possibility of kra and kam sui being grouped together as northern kra dai and hlai with tai as southern kra dai 37 norquest 2007 has further updated this classification to include lakkia and be norquest notes that lakkia shares some similarities with kam sui while be shares some similarities with tai norquest 2007 15 notes that be shares various similarities with northern tai languages in particular 5 following ostapirat norquest adopts the name kra dai for the family as a whole the following tree of kra dai is from norquest 2007 16 kra dai northern kra northeastern lakkia kam sui southern hlai be tai tai be additionally norquest 2007 also proposes a reconstruction for proto southern kra dai norquest 2015 2020 edit a classification of kra dai by norquest 2015 2020 is provided as follows 38 39 kra dai kra eastern kra dai biao lakkja kam tai lakkja kam tai kam sui western kam tai hlai be tai ong be tai norquest 2021 edit based on shared lexical innovations norquest 2021 significantly revised his classification of kra dai together biao and lakkja form the most divergent subgroup of kra dai be tai and hlai are placed together as part of a hlai tai group 40 kra dai biao lakkja kam tai kam sui kra tai kra hlai tai hlai be tai be tai migration routes of subgroups edit according to ostapirat 2026 be originated from the present day borderlands of guangxi china and northern vietnam while hlai can be traced back much further to the southwest from north central vietnam the be migrated to northern hainan via the leizhou peninsula meanwhile hlai speakers migrated directly to southern hainan but not the north since they followed a migration route that skipped leizhou jiamao also originated from northern vietnam kra languages exhibit contact influence with hmong mien and austroasiatic displaying lexical similarities with khmuic in particular 41 hypotheses regarding external relationships edit austro tai edit main article austro tai languages proposed genesis of daic languages and their relation to austronesian languages blench 2018 42 several scholars have presented evidence that kra dai may be related to or even a branch of the austronesian language family 43 there are a number of possible cognates in the core vocabulary displaying regular sound correspondences among proponents there is yet no agreement as to whether they are a sister group to austronesian in a family called austro tai a back migration from taiwan to the mainland or a later migration from the philippines to hainan during the austronesian expansion 18 the inclusion of japanese in the austro tai family as proposed by paul k benedict in the late 20th century 44 is not supported by the current proponents of the austro tai hypothesis sino tai edit the kra dai languages were formerly considered to be part of the sino tibetan family partly because they contain large numbers of words that are similar to sino tibetan languages however western scholars generally consider them to be sinitic loanwords and note that basic vocabulary words in kra dai languages often have cognates with austronesian instead 37 outside china the kra dai languages are now classified as an independent family in china they are called dong tai 侗台 or zhuang dong 壮侗 languages and are generally included along with the hmong mien languages in the sino tibetan family 45 hmong mien edit kosaka 2002 has argued specifically for a miao dai family based on proposed lexical cognates he proposes a genetic relation between hmong mien and kra dai languages he further suggests that similarities between kra dai and austronesian are due to later areal contact in the coastal areas of eastern and southeastern china or an older ancestral relation proto east asian 46 japonic edit vovin 2014 has proposed that the location of the japonic urheimat linguistic homeland is in southern china he argues for typological evidence that proto japanese may have been a monosyllabic svo syntax and isolating language which is also characteristic of kra dai languages according to him these common features are however not due to a genetic relationship but rather the result of intense contact 47 reconstruction edit main article proto kra dai language see also edit language portal austric languages proto hlai language proto hmong mien language proto kam sui language proto kra language proto tibeto burman language proto tai language sino austronesian languages references edit diller anthony jerry edmondson yongxian luo 2008 the tai kadai languages london etc routledge isbn 978 0 7007 1457 5 taikadai www languagesgulper com retrieved 15 october 2017 ethnologue tai kadai family tree 1 2 ostapirat weera 2000 proto kra linguistics of the tibeto burman area 23 1 1 251 1 2 norquest peter k 2007 a phonological reconstruction of proto hlai ph d dissertation department of anthropology university of arizona pittayaporn pittayawat 2009 the phonology of proto tai ph d thesis cornell university peter jenks and pittayawat pittayaporn kra dai languages oxford bibliographies in linguistics ed mark aranoff new york oxford university press baxter william h sagart laurent 2014 old chinese a new reconstruction oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 994537 5 n j enfield and b comrie eds 2015 languages of mainland southeast asia the state of the art berlin mouton de gruyter 1 2 benedict paul k 1942 thai kadai and indonesian a new alignment in southeastern asia american anthropologist 44 4 576 601 doi 10 1525 aa 1942 44 4 02a00040 jstor 663309 1 2 solnit david b 1988 the position of lakkia within kadai in comparative kadai linguistic studies beyond tai jerold a edmondson and david b solnit eds pages 219 238 summer institute of linguistics publications in linguistics 86 dallas summer institute of linguistics and the university of texas at arlington 1 2 edmondson jerold a and david b solnit editors 1988 comparative kadai linguistic studies beyond tai summer institute of linguistics and the un...