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rway south africa and mozambique working with the international campaign to ban landmines launched in 1992 the campaign and its leader jody williams won the nobel peace prize in 1997 for its efforts the treaty does not include anti tank mines cluster bombs or claymore type mines operated in command mode and focuses specifically on anti personnel mines because these pose the greatest long term post conflict risk to humans and animals since they are typically designed to be triggered by any movement or pressure of only a few kilograms whereas anti tank mines require much more weight or a combination of factors that would exclude humans existing stocks must be destroyed within four years of signing the treaty signatories of the ottawa treaty agree that they will not use produce stockpile or trade in anti personnel land mines in 1997 there were 122 signatories as of early 2016 162 countries have joined the treaty thirty six countries including the people s republic of china the russian federation and the united states which together may hold tens of millions of stockpiled anti personnel mines are not party to the convention 75 another 34 have yet to sign on the united states did not sign because the treaty lacks an exception for the korean demilitarized zone article 3 of the treaty permits countries to retain land mines for use in training or development of countermeasures sixty four countries have taken this option as an alternative to an outright ban 10 countries follow regulations that are contained in a 1996 amendment of protocol ii of the convention on conventional weapons ccw the countries are china finland india israel morocco pakistan south korea and the united states sri lanka which had adhered to this regulation announced in 2016 that it would join the ottawa treaty 76 submunitions and unexploded ordnance from cluster munitions can also function as land mines in that they continue to kill and maim indiscriminately long after conflicts have ended the convention on cluster munitions ccm is an international treaty that prohibits the use distribution or manufacture of cluster munitions the ccm entered into force in 2010 and has been ratified by over 100 countries manufacturers edit before the ottawa treaty was adopted the arms project of human rights watch identified almost 100 companies and government agencies in 48 countries that had manufactured more than 340 types of anti personnel land mines in recent decades five to ten million mines were produced per year with a value of 50 to 200 million the largest producers were probably china italy and the soviet union the companies involved included giants such as daimler benz the fiat group the daewoo group rca and general electric 77 78 as of 2017 the landmine cluster munition monitor identified four countries that were likely to be actively producing land mines india myanmar pakistan and south korea another seven states reserved the right to make them but were probably not doing so china cuba iran north korea russia singapore and vietnam 79 in recent years arms industry manufacturers have been using non static mines that can be specifically targeted in order to remove the imprecision of anti personnel devices promoting the use of movable underground systems movable above ground systems and systems that can be expired automatically or manually via strategic operators development of systems such as termite by arms firm emc operations has led to criticism from proponents of past multilateral agreements against the placement of land mines and submunitions due to expectations of similar long dormancy period issues after systems break or fail after it was announced that vehicles would likely be armed to destroy static targets rather than focus purely on demining efforts impacts edit throughout the world there are millions of hectares that are contaminated with land mines 80 casualties edit from 1999 to 2017 the landmine monitor has recorded over 120 000 casualties from mines ieds and erw it estimates that another 1 000 per year go unrecorded the estimate for all time is over half a million in 2017 at least 2 793 were killed and 4 431 injured 87 of the casualties were civilians and 47 were children less than 18 years old the largest numbers of casualties were in afghanistan 2 300 syria 1 906 and ukraine 429 81 environmental edit natural disasters can have a significant impact on efforts to demine areas of land for example the floods that occurred in mozambique in 1999 and 2000 may have displaced hundreds of thousands of land mines left from the war uncertainty about their locations delayed recovery efforts 80 land degradation edit from a study by asmeret asefaw berhe land degradation caused by land mines can be classified into five groups access denial loss of biodiversity micro relief disruption chemical composition and loss of productivity the effects of an explosion depend on i the objectives and methodological approaches of the investigation ii concentration of mines in a unit area iii chemical composition and toxicity of the mines iv previous uses of the land and v alternatives that are available for the affected populations 82 access denial edit the most prominent ecological issue associated with land mines or fear of them is denial of access to vital resources where access refers to the ability to use resources in contrast to property the right to use them 83 the presence and fear of presence of even a single land mine can discourage access for agriculture water supplies and possibly conservation measures 82 reconstruction and development of important structures such as schools and hospitals are likely to be delayed and populations may shift to urban areas increasing overcrowding and the risk of spreading diseases 84 access denial can have positive effects on the environment when a mined area becomes a no man s land plants and vegetation have a chance to grow and recover for example formerly arable lands in nicaragua returned to forests and remained undisturbed after the establishment of land mines similarly the penguins of the falkland islands have benefited because they are not heavy enough to trigger the mines present 85 however these benefits can only last as long as animals tree limbs etc do not detonate the mines in addition long idle periods could potentially end up creating or exacerbating loss of productivity particularly within land of low quality 82 loss of biodiversity edit land mines can threaten biodiversity by wiping out vegetation and wildlife during explosions or demining this extra burden can push threatened and endangered species to extinction they have also been used by poachers to target endangered species displaced refugees hunt animals for food and destroy habitat by making shelters 82 shrapnel or abrasions of bark or roots caused by detonated mines can cause the slow death of trees and provide entry sites for wood rotting fungi when land mines make land unavailable for farming residents resort to the forests to meet all of their survival needs this exploitation furthers the loss of biodiversity 82 chemical contamination edit near mines that have exploded or decayed soils tend to be contaminated particularly with heavy metals products produced from the explosives both organic and inorganic substances are most likely to be long lasting water soluble and toxic even in small amounts 82 they can be implemented either directly or indirectly into soil water bodies microorganisms and plants with drinking water food products or during respiration 82 toxic compounds can also find their way into bodies of water and accumulate in land animals fish and plants they can act as a nerve poison to hamper growth with deadly effect 82 economic edit a 2025 study in econometrica which examined landmine removal in mozambique found substantial economic benefits from landmine removal in particular in areas where the mines affected roads and railroads 86 see also edit 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