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aintain their internal circadian rhythms circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf opening and leaf closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors 99 gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in y shaped tubes 34 in a series of training sessions the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube in each case there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light the unconditioned stimulus us was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus cs was the wind blowing by the fan previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways 100 during the testing phase of gagliano s experiment the pea seedlings were placed in different y pipes and exposed to the fan alone their direction of growth was subsequently recorded the correct response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was predicted from the previous day the majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day 34 for example if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the y pipe the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the y arm plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the y pipe the percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning 34 while the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known telewski et al describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano perception in plants 101 one mechanism for mechano perception in plants relies on ms ion channels and calcium channels mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers known as ms ion channels are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension ca2 permeable ion channels are stretch gated and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium a well known second messenger into the cell this ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize 101 gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in pisum sativum is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways the result is directional growth to maximize a plant s capture of sunlight 34 gagliano et al published another paper on habituation behaviors in the mimosa pudica plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus 20 there has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition charles abrahmson a psychologist and behavioral biologist says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of learning and cognition 102 similarly michael pollan an author and journalist says in his piece the intelligent plant that researchers do not doubt gagliano s data but rather her language specifically her use of the term learning and cognition with respect to plants 103 a direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers definitions of cognition and learning machine learning edit main article machine learning robots can learn to cooperate machine learning a branch of artificial intelligence concerns the construction and study of systems that can show learning from data for example a machine learning system could be trained on email messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non spam messages most of the machine learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input e g an image is associated with a probability to become the desired output see also edit 21st century skills skills identified as being required for success in the 21st century anticipatory socialization process in which people take on the values of groups that they aspire to join educational aims and objectives desired result of an educational process epistemology philosophical study of knowledge implicit learning unintentional learning of complex information lifelong learning ongoing voluntary and self motivated pursuit of knowledge media psychology area of psychology subgoal labeling cognitive process information theory edit algorithmic information theory subfield of information theory and computer science algorithmic probability mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation bayesian inference method of statistical inference inductive logic programming learning logic programs from data inductive probability determining the probability of future events based on past events information theory scientific study of digital information minimum description length model selection principle minimum message length formal information theory restatement of occam s razor occam s razor philosophical problem solving principle solomonoff s theory of inductive inference mathematical theory aixi mathematical formalism for artificial general intelligence types of education edit autodidacticism independent education without the guidance of teachers andragogy methods and principles in adult education pedagogy theory and practice of education references edit richard gross psychology the science of mind and 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