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with the romans hoping that this would protect them from roman involvement in a war against the langobards however justinian already had another agreement with the langobards and when they called upon the romans soon afterwards the romans sent forces 73 in 552 the langobards with a small amount of roman support defeated the gepids in a major battle 74 in the battle audoin s son alboin killed thurisind s son turismod 75 according to paul the deacon alboin then asked to be adopted in arms by king thurisind thus ending the conflict between the two peoples for the time being 76 also in 552 the byzantines aided by a large contingent of foederati notably lombards heruls and bulgars defeated the last ostrogoths led by teia in the battle of taginae 77 in the meantime hildigis the heir of the langobards had been welcomed in byzantium by justinian and become the leader of a palace guard made up of langobards and living in thrace aubouin requested his delivery but justinian refused 78 dissatisfied with his conditions however hildigis conspired to steal imperial horses and flee with his followers he succeeded in reaching the gepids where aubouin once again requested his delivery the gepid nobles were disgusted by the idea but thurisind contacted aubouin suggesting that they should both commit equal sins by delivering ustrigothus realising that neither people wished to do so openly an arrangement was found by which both hildigis and usitrgothis were killed secretly 79 in approximately 560 audoin was succeeded by his son alboin a young and energetic leader who defeated the neighbouring gepidae and made them his subjects in 566 he married rosamund daughter of the gepid king cunimund in the same year he made a pact with khagan bayan next year the lombards and the avars destroyed the gepid kingdom in the lombard gepid war the allies halved the prize of war and the nomads settled in transylvania 80 kingdom of the lombards in italy 568 774 edit main article kingdom of the lombards phases of the conquest of italy lombard invasion of italy redirects here rosamund forced to drink from the skull of her father by pietro della vecchia according to samu szádeczky kardoss the cup could be a gift from bayan as it was a nomad habit to make cups from the enemy s skulls in the spring of 568 alboin now fearing the aggressive avars led the lombard migration into italy 81 which he planned for years 80 according to the history of the lombards then the langobards having left pannonia hastened to take possession of italy with their wives and children and all their goods 82 the avars have agreed to shelter them if they wish to come back 80 various other peoples who either voluntarily joined or were subjects of king alboin were also part of the migration 81 whence even until today we call the villages in which they dwell gepidan bulgarian sarmatian pannonian suabian norican or by other names of this kind 83 at least 20 000 saxon warriors old allies of the lombards and their families joined them in their new migration 84 the first important city to fall was forum iulii cividale del friuli in northeastern italy in 569 there alboin created the first lombard duchy which he entrusted to his nephew gisulf soon vicenza verona and brescia fell into germanic hands in the summer of 569 the lombards conquered the main roman centre of northern italy milan the area was then recovering from the terrible gothic wars and the small byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing longinus the exarch sent to italy by emperor justin ii could only defend coastal cities that could be supplied by the powerful byzantine fleet pavia fell after a siege of three years in 572 becoming the first capital city of the new lombard kingdom of italy lombard grave goods sixth to seventh century milan lombardy in the following years the lombards penetrated further south conquering tuscany and establishing two duchies spoleto and benevento under zotto which soon became semi independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom surviving well into the twelfth century wherever they went they were joined by the ostrogothic population which was allowed to live peacefully in italy with their rugian allies under roman sovereignty 85 the byzantines managed to retain control of the area of ravenna and rome linked by a thin corridor running through perugia when they entered italy some lombards retained their native form of paganism while some were arian christians hence they did not enjoy good relations with the early christian church gradually they adopted roman or romanised titles names and traditions and partially converted to orthodoxy in the seventh century though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts by the time paul the deacon was writing the lombard language dress and even hairstyles had nearly all disappeared in toto 86 plutei of theodota mid eighth century civic museums of pavia the whole lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies whose leaders settled in the main cities the king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi this subdivision however together with the independent indocility of the duchies deprived the kingdom of unity making it weak even when compared to the byzantines especially since these had begun to recover from the initial invasion this weakness became even more evident when the lombards had to face the increasing power of the franks in response the kings tried to centralise power over time but they definitively lost control over spoleto and benevento in the attempt langobardia major edit duchy of friuli duchy of tridentum duchy of persiceta duchy of pavia duchy of tuscia langobardia minor edit duchy of spoleto and duke of spoleto duchy of benevento and list of dukes and princes of benevento arian monarchy edit the frankish merovingian king chlothar ii in combat with the lombards in 572 alboin was murdered in verona in a plot led by his wife rosamund who later fled to ravenna 87 his successor cleph was also assassinated after a ruthless reign of 18 months his death began an interregnum of years the rule of the dukes during which the dukes did not elect any king a period regarded as a time of violence and disorder 88 89 in 584 threatened by a frankish invasion the dukes elected cleph s son authari as king 88 in 589 he married theodelinda daughter of garibald i of bavaria the duke of bavaria 90 the catholic theodelinda corresponded with pope gregory i and encouraged the conversion of the lombards 88 in the meantime authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganise royal administration the dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in pavia 91 in foreign affairs authari blocked an alliance between the byzantines and the franks 88 authari died in 590 and was succeeded by agilulf the duke of turin who also married theodelinda in the same year 92 93 agilulf successfully fought the rebel dukes of northern italy conquering padua in 601 cremona and mantua in 603 and exacting a payment from the exarch of ravenna 94 agilulf died in 616 theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was succeeded by adaloald arioald the head of the arian opposition who had married theodelinda s daughter gundeperga later deposed adaloald 95 arioald was succeeded by rothari who reigned from 636 to 652 96 he extended his dominions conquering liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the byzantine territories of inner veneto including the roman city of opitergium oderzo 97 rothari also issued the edict bearing his name the edictum rothari which established the laws and the customs of his people in latin the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the lombards who could retain their own laws 98 rothari s son rodoald succeeded him in 652 still very young and was killed by his opponents at the death of king aripert i in 661 the kingdom was split between his children perctarit who set his capital in milan and godepert who reigned from pavia ticinum 99 perctarit was overthrown by grimoald son of gisulf duke of friuli and benevento since 647 100 perctarit fled to the avars and then to the franks grimoald regained control over the duchies repelled the attempt of the byzantine emperor constans ii to conquer southern italy and defeated the franks 101 at grimoald s death in 671 perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between arians and catholics but he could not subdue the rebel alahis duke of trento who was overcome only by his son the philo catholic cunincpert 102 the lombards engaged in fierce battles with slavic peoples during these years from 623 to 626 the lombards unsuccessfully attacked the carantanians citation needed and in 663 64 the slavs raided the vipava valley and the friuli 103 catholic monarchy edit king liutprand 712 744 was a zealous catholic generous and a great founder of monasteries 104 religious strife and the slavic raids remained a source of struggle in the following years in 705 the friuli lombards were defeated and lost the land to the west of the soča river namely the gorizia hills and the venetian slovenia 105 a new ethnic border was established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until the present time 105 106 the lombard reign began to recover only with liutprand the lombard king from 712 son of ansprand and successor of the brutal aripert ii he managed to regain a certain control over spoleto and benevento and taking advantage of the disagreements between the pope and byzantium concerning the reverence of icons he annexed the exarchate of ravenna and the duchy of rome he also helped the frankish marshal charles martel drive back the arabs the slavs were defeated in the battle of lavariano when they tried to conquer the friulian plain in 720 105 liutprand s successor aistulf conquered ravenna for the lombards for the first time but had to relinquish it when he was subsequently defeated by the king of the franks pippin iii who was called by the pope after the death of aistulf ratchis attempted to become king of lombardy but he was deposed by desiderius duke of tuscany the last lombard to rule as king king desiderius managed to take ravenna definitively ending the byzantine presence in northern italy he decided to reopen struggles against the pope who was supporting the dukes of spoleto and benevento against him and entered rome in 772 the first lombard king to do so but when pope hadrian i called for help from the powerful frankish king charlemagne desiderius was defeated at susa and besieged in pavia while his son adelchis was forced to open the gates of verona to frankish troops desiderius surrendered in 774 and charlemagne in an utterly novel decision took the title king of the lombards before then the germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other but none had adopted the title of king of another people charlemagne took part of the lombard territory to create the papal states the lombardy region in italy which includes the cities of brescia bergamo milan and the old capital pavia is a reminder of the presence of the lombards later history edit falling to the franks and the duchy of benevento 774 849 edit lombard duchy of benevento in the eighth century though the kingdom centred on pavia in the north fell to charlemagne and the franks in 774 the lombard controlled territory to the south of the papal states was never subjugated by charlemagne or his descendants in 774 duke arechis ii of benevento whose duchy had only nominally been under royal authority though certain kings had been effective at making their power known in the south claimed that benevento was the successor state of the kingdom he tried to turn benevento into a secundum ticinum a second pavia he tried to claim the kingship but with no support and no chance of a coronation in pavia charlemagne came down with an army and his son louis the pious sent men to force the beneventan duke to submit but his submission and promises were never kept and arechis and his successors were de facto independent the beneventan dukes took the title prínceps prince instead of that of king the lombards of southern italy were thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by two empires the carolingian empire to the north and west and the byzantine empire to the east they typically made pledges and promises of tribute to the carolingians but effectively remained outside frankish control benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet when it imposed a tribute on the duchy of naples which was tenuously loyal to byzantium and even conquered the neapolitan city of amalfi in 838 at one point in the reign of sicard lombard control covered most of southern italy save the very south of apulia and calabria and naples with its nominally attached cities it was during the ninth century that a strong lombard presence became entrenched in formerly greek apulia however sicard had opened up the south to the invasive actions of the saracens in his war with andrew ii of naples and when he was assassinated in 839 amalfi declared independence and two factions fought for power in benevento crippling the principality and making it susceptible to external enemies the civil war lasted ten years and ended with a peace treaty imposed in 849 by emperor louis ii the only frankish king to exercise actual sovereignty over the lombard states the treaty divided the kingdom into two states the principality of benevento and the principality of salerno with its capital at salerno on the tyrrhenian sea southern italy and the arabs 836 915 edit main article history of islam in southern italy andrew ii of naples hired islamic mercenaries and formed a muslim christian alliance for his war with sicard of benevento in 836 sicard responded with other muslim mercenaries the saracens initially concentrated their attacks on sicily and byzantine italy but soon radelchis i of benevento called in more mercenaries who destroyed capua in 841 landulf the old founded the present day capua new capua on a nearby hill in general the lombard princes were less inclined to ally with the saracens than with their greek neighbours of amalfi gaeta naples and sorrento guaifer of salerno however briefly put himself under muslim suzerainty in 847 a large muslim force seized bari until then a lombard gastaldate under the control of pandenulf saracen incursions proceeded northwards until adelchis of benevento sought the help of his suzerain louis ii who allied with the byzantine emperor basil i to expel the arabs from bari in 869 an arab landing force was defeated by the emperor in 871 adelchis and louis remained at war until the death of louis in 875 adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the lombard kings and in that capacity he amended the edictum rothari the last lombard ruler to do so after the death of louis landulf ii of capua briefly flirted with a saracen alliance but pope john viii convinced him to break it off guai...