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ntal substance of nature so that all things including mind and consciousness arise from material interactions and depend on physical processes including those of the human brain and nervous system it contrasts with monistic idealism which treats consciousness as fundamental and is related to naturalism the view that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe and to physicalism the view that all that exists is ultimately physical physicalism extends materialism by including forms of physicality beyond ordinary matter e g spacetime energy forces exotic matter and some use the terms interchangeably alternative or opposing views to materialism or physicalism include idealism pluralism dualism solipsism panpsychism and other forms of monism overview edit materialism is the philosophical doctrine that matter has a primary position in the nature of the world with mind or consciousness emerging as a secondary dependent reality or not existing at all 1 in its extreme form materialism asserts that the real world consists of only material things with the important qualification that space and time must also be included if these are realities rather than mere systems of relations 1 materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology and is thus different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism for singular explanations of the phenomenal reality materialism is in contrast to idealism neutral monism and spiritualism it can also contrast with phenomenalism vitalism and dual aspect monism it can be linked to the concept of determinism as espoused by enlightenment thinkers 2 in contemporary philosophy the terms materialism and physicalism are often treated as interchangeable though they have distinct histories 3 materialism appears in english toward the end of the 17th century while physicalism was introduced in the 1930s by otto neurath and rudolf carnap of the vienna circle as a linguistic thesis arguing for the translatability of all statements into physical language 3 one reason to prefer physicalism is that physics has revealed entities that are not matter in the classical sense of an inert substance forces such as gravity are physical but not obviously material by the traditional understanding 3 modern philosophical materialists extend the definition to include other scientifically observable entities such as energy forces and the spacetime continuum some philosophers such as mary midgley suggest that the concept of matter is elusive and poorly defined 4 non reductive materialism edit materialism is often associated with reductionism according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description if they are genuine must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description typically at a more reduced level non reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects properties or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents jerry fodor held this view according to which empirical laws and explanations in special sciences like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics 5 history edit see also history of naturalism early history edit before common era edit leucippus 4th century bc father of atomism and teacher of democritus painting by luca giordano c 1653 materialism developed possibly independently in several geographically separated regions of eurasia during what karl jaspers termed the axial age c 800 200 bc in ancient indian philosophy materialism developed around 600 bc with the works of ajita kesakambali payasi kanada and the proponents of the cārvāka school of philosophy kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism the nyaya vaisesika school c 600 100 bc developed one of the earliest forms of atomism although their proofs of god and their positing that consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists buddhist atomism and the jaina school continued the atomic tradition 6 ancient greek atomists like leucippus democritus and epicurus prefigure later materialists the latin poem de rerum natura by lucretius 99 c 55 bc reflects the mechanistic philosophy of democritus and epicurus according to this view all that exists is matter and void and all phenomena result from different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called atoms literally indivisibles de rerum natura provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion evaporation wind and sound famous principles like nothing can touch body but body first appeared in lucretius s work democritus and epicurus did not espouse a monist ontology instead espousing the ontological separation of matter and space i e that space is another kind of being citation needed epicureanism is a philosophy of materialism from classical antiquity that was a major forerunner of modern science classical atomism predates epicurus 5th century bce thinkers leucippus and democritus explained all change as the collisions of indivisible atoms moving in the void 7 epicureanism refined this materialist picture epicurus held that everything including mind consists solely of atoms moving in the void to explain how parallel falling atoms could meet he postulated the clinamen an extremely slight lateral deviation that initiates collisions without supernatural causes and that need not imply genuine indeterminism 8 9 early common era edit wang chong 27 c 100 ad was a chinese thinker of the early common era said to be a materialist 10 later indian materialist jayaraashi bhatta 6th century in his work tattvopaplavasimha the upsetting of all principles refuted the nyāya sūtra epistemology the materialistic cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400 when madhavacharya compiled sarva darśana samgraha a digest of all philosophies in the 14th century he had no cārvāka or lokāyata text to quote from or refer to 11 in early 12th century al andalus arabian philosopher ibn tufail a k a abubacer discussed materialism in his philosophical novel hayy ibn yaqdhan philosophus autodidactus while vaguely foreshadowing historical materialism 12 modern philosophy edit atomists proposed that the universe consists of atoms moving in space of the nature of things by lucretius 1682 in france pierre gassendi 1592 1665 13 represented the materialist tradition in opposition to the attempts of rené descartes 1596 1650 to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations there followed the materialist and atheist abbé jean meslier 1664 1729 along with the french materialists julien offray de la mettrie 1709 1751 denis diderot 1713 1784 étienne bonnot de condillac 1714 1780 claude adrien helvétius 1715 1771 german french baron d holbach 1723 1789 and other french enlightenment thinkers 14 in england materialism was developed in the philosophies of francis bacon 1561 1626 thomas hobbes 1588 1679 15 and john locke 1632 1704 16 scottish enlightenment philosopher david hume 1711 1776 became one of the most important materialist philosophers in the 18th century 17 john walking stewart 1747 1822 believed matter has a moral dimension which had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of william wordsworth 1770 1850 in late modern philosophy german atheist anthropologist ludwig feuerbach signaled a new turn in materialism in his 1841 book the essence of christianity which presented a humanist account of religion as the outward projection of man s inward nature feuerbach introduced anthropological materialism a version of materialism that views materialist anthropology as the universal science 18 feuerbach s variety of materialism heavily influenced karl marx 19 who in the late 19th century elaborated the concept of historical materialism the basis for what marx and friedrich engels outlined as scientific socialism the materialist conception of history starts from the proposition that the production of the means to support human life and next to production the exchange of things produced is the basis of all social structure that in every society that has appeared in history the manner in which wealth is distributed and society divided into classes or orders is dependent upon what is produced how it is produced and how the products are exchanged from this point of view the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought not in men s brains not in men s better insights into eternal truth and justice but in changes in the modes of production and exchange they are to be sought not in the philosophy but in the economics of each particular epoch friedrich engels socialism scientific and utopian 1880 through his dialectics of nature 1883 engels later developed a materialist dialectic philosophy of nature a worldview that georgi plekhanov the father of russian marxism called dialectical materialism 20 in early 20th century russian philosophy vladimir lenin further developed dialectical materialism in his 1909 book materialism and empirio criticism which connects his opponents political conceptions to their anti materialist philosophies a more naturalist oriented materialist school of thought that developed in the mid 19th century was german materialism which included ludwig büchner 1824 1899 the dutch born jacob moleschott 1822 1893 and carl vogt 1817 1895 21 22 even though they had different views on core issues such as the evolution and the origins of life 23 according to marxist theoretician george novack despite the multiplicity of named schools philosophy ultimately confronts a single binary materialism versus idealism 24 contemporary history edit see also contemporary philosophy analytic philosophy edit see also physicalism and scientific materialism contemporary analytic philosophers e g daniel dennett willard van orman quine donald davidson and jerry fodor operate within a broadly physicalist or scientific materialist framework producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate the mind including functionalism anomalous monism and identity theory 25 scientific materialism is often synonymous with and has typically been described as a reductive materialism in the early 21st century paul and patricia churchland 26 27 advocated a radically contrasting position at least in regard to certain hypotheses eliminative materialism eliminative materialism holds that some mental phenomena simply do not exist at all and that talk of such phenomena reflects a spurious folk psychology and introspection illusion a materialist of this variety might believe that a concept like belief has no basis in fact e g the way folk science speaks of demon caused illnesses with reductive materialism at one end of a continuum our theories will reduce to facts and eliminative materialism at the other certain theories will need to be eliminated in light of new facts revisionary materialism is somewhere in the middle 25 in contrast christian list argues that the existence of first person perspectives i e one existing as oneself and not as someone else refutes physicalism list argues that since first personal facts cannot supervene on physical facts this refutes not only physicalism but also most forms of dualism that have purely third personal metaphysics 28 continental philosophy edit see also new materialism speculative materialism and transcendental materialism contemporary continental philosopher gilles deleuze attempted to rework and strengthen classical materialist ideas 29 contemporary theorists such as manuel delanda working with this reinvigorated materialism have come to be classified as new materialists 30 new materialism has become its own subfield with courses on it at major universities as well as numerous conferences edited collections and monographs devoted to it jane bennett s 2010 book vibrant matter has been particularly instrumental in bringing theories of monist ontology and vitalism back into a critical theoretical fold dominated by poststructuralist theories of language and discourse 31 new materialism has been criticized by scholars of critical race indigenous and queer studies who argue it neglects questions of race gender and colonialism and by others who question whether its claims are genuinely novel given that indigenous and animist traditions have long held views about the agency or vitality of matter 32 in being and event 1988 alain badiou developed a materialist position using zermelo fraenkel set theory badiou argues that mathematics rather than physics or human perception reveals the metaphysical structure of reality and that this structure is pure multiplicity without any foundational substance or unifying one 33 quentin meillassoux has developed speculative materialism a position that seeks to escape what he calls correlationism the post kantian view that thought cannot access reality independent of its relation to the subject 34 clarification needed defining matter edit the nature and definition of matter like other key concepts in science and philosophy have occasioned much debate 35 is there a single kind of matter hyle that everything is made of or are there multiple kinds is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms hylomorphism 36 or a number of discrete unchanging constituents atomism 37 does matter have intrinsic properties substance theory 38 or lack them prima materia one challenge to the conventional concept of matter as tangible stuff came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century relativity shows that matter and energy including the spatially distributed energy of fields are interchangeable this enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms in contrast the standard model of particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions on this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field 39 citation needed according to the dominant cosmological model the lambda cdm model less than 5 of the universe s energy density is made up of the matter the standard model describes and most of the universe is composed of dark matter and dark energy with little agreement among scientists about what these are made of 40 with the advent of quantum physics some scientists believed the concept of matter had merely changed while others believed the conventional position could no longer be maintained werner heisenberg said the ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence the direct actuality of the world around us can be extrapolated into the atomic range this extrapolation however is impossible atoms are not things 41 the concept of matter has changed in response to new scientific discoveries thus materialism has no definite content independent of the particular theory of matter on which it is based according to noam choms...