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and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism jean metzinger 1913 en canot im boot oil on canvas 146 cm 114 cm 57 5 in 45 in exhibited at moderni umeni s v u mánes prague 1914 acquired in 1916 by georg muche at the galerie der sturm confiscated by the nazis circa 1936 1937 displayed at the degenerate art show in munich and missing ever since 99 abstract artists taking as their examples the impressionists as well as paul cézanne 1839 1906 and edvard munch 1863 1944 began with the assumption that color and shape not the depiction of the natural world formed the essential characteristics of art 100 western art had been from the renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality the arts of cultures other than the european had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist by the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art that encompassed the fundamental changes taking place in technology science and philosophy the sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of western culture at that time 101 wassily kandinsky piet mondrian and kazimir malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color the use of photography which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete strongly affected this aspect of modernism 102 modernist architects and designers such as frank lloyd wright 103 and le corbusier 104 believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete le corbusier thought that buildings should function as machines for living in analogous to cars which he saw as machines for traveling in 105 just as cars had replaced the horse so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from ancient greece or the middle ages following this machine aesthetic modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms 106 the skyscraper is the archetypal modernist building and the wainwright building a 10 story office building completed in 1891 in st louis missouri united states is among the first skyscrapers in the world 107 ludwig mies van der rohe s seagram building in new york 1956 1958 is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high rise architecture 108 many aspects of modernist design persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration historical quotation and spatial drama andré masson pedestal table in the studio 1922 an early example of surrealism in 1913 which was the year of philosopher edmund husserl s ideas physicist niels bohr s quantized atom ezra pound s founding of imagism the armory show in new york and in saint petersburg the first futurist opera mikhail matyushin s victory over the sun another russian composer igor stravinsky composed the rite of spring a ballet that depicts human sacrifice and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm this caused an uproar on its first performance in paris at this time though modernism was still progressive it increasingly saw traditional forms and social arrangements as hindering progress and recast the artist as a revolutionary engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society also in 1913 a less violent event occurred in france with the publication of the first volume of marcel proust s important novel sequence à la recherche du temps perdu 1913 1927 in search of lost time this is often presented as an early example of a writer using the stream of consciousness technique but robert humphrey comments that proust is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness and that he was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating hence he did not write a stream of consciousness novel 109 stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovation and it has been suggested that arthur schnitzler 1862 1931 was the first to make full use of it in his short story leutnant gustl none but the brave 1900 110 dorothy richardson was the first english writer to use it in the early volumes of her novel sequence pilgrimage 1915 1967 f other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include james joyce in ulysses 1922 and italo svevo in la coscienza di zeno 1923 112 however with the coming of the great war of 1914 1918 world war i and the russian revolution of 1917 the world was drastically changed and doubt was cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past the failure of the previous status quo seemed self evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth before 1914 it had been argued that no one would fight such a war since the cost was too high the birth of a machine age which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century had now radically changed the nature of warfare the traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions and a realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of trench warfare the view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter described in works such as erich maria remarque s novel all quiet on the western front 1929 therefore modernism s view of reality which had been a minority taste before the war became more generally accepted in the 1920s in literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly to make their art more vivid or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions this aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture which developed in europe and north america in the late 19th century whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices high modernists reject such consumerist attitudes to undermine conventional thinking 113 the art critic clement greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay avant garde and kitsch 114 greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture kitsch because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal with any difficult features removed for greenberg modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music hollywood and advertising 115 greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism some modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution in russia after the 1917 revolution there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant garde cultural activity which included russian futurism 116 however others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures but many modernists saw themselves as apolitical others such as t s eliot rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position some even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture that excluded the majority of the population 114 surrealism which originated in the early 1920s came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism or the avant garde of modernism 117 the word surrealist was coined by guillaume apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play les mamelles de tirésias which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917 118 major surrealists include paul éluard robert desnos 119 max ernst hans arp antonin artaud raymond queneau joan miró and marcel duchamp 120 by 1930 modernism had won a place in the political and artistic establishment although by this time modernism itself had changed modernism continues 1930 1945 edit modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s between 1930 and 1932 composer arnold schoenberg worked on moses und aron one of the first operas to make use of the twelve tone technique 121 pablo picasso painted in 1937 guernica his cubist condemnation of fascism 122 while in 1939 james joyce pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with finnegans wake also by 1930 modernism began to influence mainstream culture so that for example the new yorker magazine began publishing work influenced by modernism by young writers and humorists like dorothy parker 123 robert benchley e b white s j perelman and james thurber amongst others 124 perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s most often in the new yorker which are considered to be the first examples of surrealist humor in america 125 modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos an early example of which from 1916 is the famous london underground logo designed by edward johnston 126 one of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into the daily lives of ordinary people in western europe and north america electricity the telephone the radio the automobile and the need to work with them repair them and live with them created social change 127 the kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence for example the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life at least in middle class north america associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children london underground logo designed by edward johnston this is the modern version with minor modifications of one that was first used in 1916 another strong influence at this time was marxism after the generally primitivistic irrationalism aspect of pre world war i modernism which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions and the neoclassicism of the 1920s as represented most famously by t s eliot and igor stravinsky which rejected popular solutions to modern problems the rise of fascism the great depression and the march to war helped to radicalize a generation bertolt brecht w h auden andré breton louis aragon and the philosophers antonio gramsci and walter benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this modernist form of marxism there were however also modernists explicitly of the right including salvador dalí wyndham lewis t s eliot ezra pound the dutch author menno ter braak and others 128 significant modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s including further novels by marcel proust virginia woolf robert musil and dorothy richardson 129 the american modernist dramatist eugene o neill s career began in 1914 but his major works appeared in the 1920s 1930s and early 1940s two other significant modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were bertolt brecht and federico garcía lorca d h lawrence s lady chatterley s lover was privately published in 1928 while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of william faulkner s the sound and the fury in 1929 in the 1930s in addition to further major works by faulkner samuel beckett published his first major work the novel murphy 1938 then in 1939 james joyce s finnegans wake appeared this is written in a largely idiosyncratic language consisting of a mixture of standard english lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams 130 in poetry t s eliot e e cummings and wallace stevens were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s while modernist poetry in english is often viewed as an american phenomenon with leading exponents including ezra pound t s eliot marianne moore william carlos williams h d and louis zukofsky there were important british modernist poets including david jones hugh macdiarmid basil bunting and w h auden european modernist poets include federico garcía lorca anna akhmatova constantine cavafy and paul valéry james joyce statue on north earl street dublin by marjorie fitzgibbon the modernist movement continued during this period in soviet russia in 1930 composer dimitri shostakovich s 1906 1975 opera the nose was premiered in which he uses a montage of different styles including folk music popular song and atonality among his influences was alban berg s 1885 1935 opera wozzeck 1925 which had made a tremendous impression on shostakovich when it was staged in leningrad 131 however from 1932 socialist realism began to oust modernism in the soviet union 132 and in 1936 shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th symphony 133 alban berg wrote another significant though incomplete modernist opera lulu which premiered in 1937 berg s violin concerto was first performed in 1935 like shostakovich other composers faced difficulties in this period in germany arnold schoenberg 1874 1951 was forced to flee to the u s when hitler came to power in 1933 because of his modernist atonal style as well as his jewish ancestry 134 his major works from this period are a violin concerto op 36 1934 36 and a piano concerto op 42 1942 schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the suite for strings in g major 1935 and the chamber symphony no 2 in e minor op 38 begun in 1906 completed in 1939 134 during this time hungarian modernist béla bartók 1881 1945 produced a number of major works including music for strings percussion and celesta 1936 and the divertimento for string orchestra 1939 string quartet no 5 1934 and no 6 his last 1939 but he too left for the us in 1940 because of the rise of fascism in hungary 134 igor stravinsky 1882 1971 continued writing in his neoclassical style during the 1930s and 1940s writing works like the symphony of psalms 1930 symphony in c 1940 and symphony in three movements 1945 he also emigrated to the us because of world war ii olivier messiaen 1908 1992 however served in the french army during the war and was imprisoned at stalag viii a by the germans where he composed his famous quatuor pour la fin du temps quartet for the end of time the quartet was first performed in january 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards 135 in painting during the 1920s and 1930s and the great depression modernism was defined by surrealism late cubism bauhaus de stijl dada german expressionism and modernist and masterful color painters like henri matisse and pierre bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like piet mondrian and wassily kandinsky which characterized the european art s...