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ational recognition in 1878 serbia had sought to liberate and unite with bosnia and herzegovina to the west and old serbia kosovo and vardar macedonia to the south nationalist circles in both serbia and croatia part of austria hungary began to advocate a greater south slavic union in the 1860s claiming bosnia as their common land based on shared language and tradition 122 in 1914 serb revolutionaries in bosnia assassinated archduke ferdinand austria hungary with german backing tried to crush serbia in 1914 thus igniting the first world war in which austria hungary dissolved into nation states 123 in 1918 the region of banat bačka and baranja came under control of the serbian army later the great national assembly of serbs bunjevci and other slavs voted to join serbia the kingdom of serbia joined the union with state of slovenes croats and serbs on 1 december 1918 and the country was named kingdom of serbs croats and slovenes it was renamed yugoslavia in 1929 and a yugoslav identity was promoted which ultimately failed after the second world war yugoslav communists established a new socialist republic of yugoslavia that state broke up again in the 1990s 124 poland edit main article polish nationalism the cause of polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918 in the 1790s the habsburg monarchy prussia and russia invaded annexed and subsequently partitioned poland napoleon set up the duchy of warsaw a new polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism russia took it over in 1815 as congress poland with the tsar proclaimed as king of poland large scale nationalist revolts erupted in 1830 and 1863 64 but were harshly crushed by russia which tried to make the polish language culture and religion more like russia s the collapse of the russian empire in the first world war enabled the major powers to re establish an independent poland which survived until 1939 meanwhile poles in areas controlled by germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by bismarck in the kulturkampf of the 1870s the poles joined german catholics in a well organized new centre party and defeated bismarck politically he responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the centre party 125 126 in the late 19th and early 20th century many polish nationalist leaders endorsed the piast concept it held there was a polish utopia during the piast dynasty a thousand years before and modern polish nationalists should restore its central values of poland for the poles jan poplawski had developed the piast concept in the 1890s and it formed the centerpiece of polish nationalist ideology especially as presented by the national democracy party known as the endecja which was led by roman dmowski in contrast with the jagiellon concept there was no concept for a multi ethnic poland 127 the piast concept stood in opposition to the jagiellon concept which allowed for multi ethnicism and polish rule over numerous minority groups such as those in the kresy the jagiellon concept was the official policy of the government in the 1920s and 1930s soviet dictator josef stalin at tehran in 1943 rejected the jagiellon concept because it involved polish rule over ukrainians and belarusians he instead endorsed the piast concept which justified a massive shift of poland s frontiers to the west 128 after 1945 the soviet back puppet communist regime wholeheartedly adopted the piast concept making it the centerpiece of their claim to be the true inheritors of polish nationalism after all the killings including nazi german occupation terror in poland and population transfers during and after the war the nation was officially declared as 99 ethnically polish 129 jewish nationalism edit antisemitism has been a problem since the middle ages however it became more prevalent as the percent of the population that was jewish increased in western countries increased antisemitism would lead to further exclusion and discrimination 130 in the 19th century jews in western europe saw increased access to civil rights and liberties among these were the right to vote hold office own land and serve in the armed forces 131 meanwhile jews in eastern europe often faced mass persecution particularly in russian empire anti jewish riots referred to as pogroms triggered mass emigration of jews who fled to america and western europe 132 133 at the dawn of the 20th century antisemitism would become an increasing problem in the west as well as more jews immigrated to the west 130 while a majority of jews wanted to continue integrating into western society some felt that jews should return to the biblical promise land of palestine these jews later known as zionists believed that antisemitism was an existential and permanent threat to judaism and that a jewish state was the only solution jewish settlement of palestine occurred in waves with jews from both western and eastern europe settling in the area starting after 1882 134 as the jews arrived there were still many discrepancies in beliefs that had to be rectified to ensure a concise national identity political theorists state that there are four key elements necessary for a group to suffice as a nationality a shared territory a shared culture a shared economy and a shared language 135 many of these attributes were heavily debated as zionism increased in popularity the official language of israel was originally debated between hebrew and yiddish however many eastern european jews had already begun teaching hebrew as the official language of israel and completely rejected yiddish eventually hebrew would become the official language of the state of israel 134 136 while some jews had begun settling in palestine they had not officially claimed the territory as their own as it remained in possession of the british mandate 137 furthermore some zionists debated the exact location of a potential jewish state with many possible locations being proposed 138 in 1948 israel was officially declared and recognized as the official jewish state solving the territorial question 139 from the beginning the economic question was brought into play as labour zionists hoped to create a socialist state while religious zionists came to israel for varying reasons and with holding different economic beliefs 134 in the early 20th century the jewish socialist movement of bundism sought to increase the number of jews speaking yiddish on top of pursuing marxist economics across europe however the movement would dissipate after world war 2 as the nazis targeted and murdered bundists 140 after israel s founding in 1948 it was uncertain where they would side in the cold war with both the united states and the ussr supporting israel meanwhile right wing revisionists had gained mainstream attraction in opposition to the socialist movements that were predominant in the early years of the zionist state by the 1960s the ussr had cut off relations with israel who had begun liberalizing their economy thus israel finally achieved a shared language economy culture and territory allowing for jewish nationalism to be achieved 141 142 several scholars have predated the appearance of nationhood and nationalism among jews back to antiquity anthony smith who generally views nationalism as a modern phenomenon argued that a jewish nation existed as early as the 7th century bce and that jewish nationalism itself as a political movement aiming to restore national autonomy emerged during the jewish roman wars he contended that a vivid sense of jewish nationhood sustained through medieval jewish thought encouraged reception of zionism s promise of return and regeneration as a nation and the restoration of an independent state last held before 63 bce 143 20th century edit china edit main article chinese nationalism the awakening of nationalism across asia helped shape the history of the continent the key episode was the decisive defeat of russia by japan in 1905 demonstrating the military advancement of non europeans in a modern war the defeat quickly led to manifestations of a new interest in nationalism in china as well as turkey and persia 144 in china sun yat sen 1866 1925 launched his new party the kuomintang national people s party in defiance of the decrepit empire which was run by outsiders the kuomintang recruits pledged f rom this moment i will destroy the old and build the new and fight for the self determination of the people and will apply all my strength to the support of the chinese republic and the realization of democracy through the three principles for the progress of good government the happiness and perpetual peace of the people and for the strengthening of the foundations of the state in the name of peace throughout the world 145 the kuomintang largely ran china until the communists took over in 1949 but the latter had also been strongly influenced by sun s nationalism as well as by the may fourth movement in 1919 it was a nationwide protest movement about the domestic backwardness of china and has often been depicted as the intellectual foundation for chinese communism 146 the new culture movement stimulated by the may fourth movement waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s historian patricia ebrey says nationalism patriotism progress science democracy and freedom were the goals imperialism feudalism warlordism autocracy patriarchy and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet chinese how to preserve china as a political entity in the world of competing nations 147 in 1911 following the xinhai revolution sun s multicultural form of chinese nationalism manifested as zhonghua minzu a concept that promoted the idea of five races under one union that sidelined han chinese supremacy in favor of coexistence alongside manchus mongols chinese muslims hui and uyghurs and tibetans all of which were supposedly equal branches of the chinese nation 148 149 19 the rhetorical move as china historian joseph esherick points out was based on practical concerns about imperial threats from the international environment and conflicts on the chinese frontiers 150 africa edit main article african nationalism kenneth kaunda an anti colonial political leader from zambia pictured at a nationalist rally in colonial northern rhodesia now zambia in 1960 in the 1880s the european powers divided up almost all of africa only ethiopia and liberia were independent they ruled until after world war ii when forces of nationalism grew much stronger in the 1950s and the 1960s colonial holdings became independent states the process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars as in algeria 151 kenya 152 and elsewhere across africa nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives had learned in the british and french and other armies during the world wars it led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers or the traditional local power structures that had been collaborating with the colonial powers nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them leaders of nationalist movements took control when the european authorities exited many ruled for decades or until they died off these structures included political educational religious and other social organizations in recent decades many african countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state 153 154 155 south africa a british colony was exceptional in that it became virtually independent by 1931 from 1948 it was controlled by white afrikaner nationalists who focused on racial segregation and white minority rule known as apartheid it lasted until 1994 when multiracial elections were held the international anti apartheid movement supported black nationalists until success was achieved verification needed and nelson mandela was elected president 156 breakup of yugoslavia edit main article breakup of yugoslavia there was a rise in extreme nationalism after the revolutions of 1989 had triggered the collapse of communism in the 1990s that left many people with no identity the people under communist rule had to integrate but they now found themselves free to choose that made long dormant conflicts rise and create sources of serious conflict 157 when communism fell in yugoslavia serious conflict arose which led to a rise in extreme nationalism the academic steven berg felt that the root of nationalist conflicts was the demand for autonomy and a separate existence 157 that nationalism can give rise to strong emotions which may lead to a group fighting to survive especially as after the fall of communism political boundaries did not match ethnic boundaries serious conflicts often arose and escalated very easily as individuals and groups acted upon their beliefs and caused death and destruction 157 21st century edit main article neo nationalism ethnic armies in myanmar that are involved in the myanmar civil war 2021 present the rise of globalism in the late 20th century led to a rise in nationalism and populism in europe and north america that trend was further fueled by increased terrorism in the west the september 11 attacks in the united states being a prime example increasing unrest and civil wars in the middle east and waves of muslim refugees especially from the syrian civil war flooding into europe as of 2016 update the refugee crisis appears to have peaked 158 159 nationalist groups like germany s pegida france s national front and the uk independence party gained prominence in their respective nations advocating restrictions on immigration to protect the local populations 160 161 in south korea similar debates over national historiography have included works such as anti japan tribalism 2019 by economist lee young hoon which critiques aspects of established historical narratives related to the colonial period 162 since 2010 catalan nationalists have led a renewed catalan independence movement and declared catalan independence the movement has been opposed by spanish nationalists 163 164 in the 2010s the greek economic crisis and waves of immigration have led to a significant rise of fascism and greek nationalism across greece especially among the youth 165 in russia exploitation of nationalist sentiments allowed vladimir putin to consolidate power 166 this nationalist sentiment was used in russia s annexation of crimea in 2014 and other actions in ukraine 161 nationalist movements gradually began to rise in central europe as well particularly poland under the influence of the ruling party law and justice led by jarosław kaczyński 167 in hungary the anti immigration rhetoric and stance against foreign influence is a powerful national glue promoted the ruling fidesz party led by viktor orbán 168 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