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ve term for aboriginal australians 10 hottentot pejorative term for the southern african khoisan 11 chinese 12 american caucasian following charles darwin s 1859 on the origin of species fuhlrott and schaaffhausen argued that neanderthal 1 represents a primitive lower human form aligning more closely with non human apes as well as negroids eskimos and aboriginal australians which were variably classified as separate species or subspecies of human at the time 24 22 25 26 the binomial name homo neanderthalensis was first proposed by william king in a paper read to the 33rd british science association in 1863 formally recognising it as distinct from modern humans 27 28 29 however in 1864 he recommended that neanderthals and modern humans be classified in different genera as he compared the neanderthal braincase to that of a chimpanzee and argued that they were incapable of moral and theistic d conceptions 30 the uniqueness of neanderthal man met opposition namely from the pathologist rudolf virchow who argued against defining new species based on only a single find in 1872 virchow erroneously interpreted neanderthal characteristics as evidence of senility disease and malformation instead of archaicness 31 which stalled neanderthal research until the end of the century 24 25 by the early 20th century numerous other neanderthal discoveries were made establishing h neanderthalensis as a legitimate species at first many palaeontologists considered neanderthals to be an intermediary phase between modern humans and more apelike ancestors as suggested by german anatomist gustav albert schwalbe this hypothesis was opposed by french palaeontologist marcellin boule who authored several publications starting in 1908 describing the french neanderthal specimen la chapelle aux saints 1 the old man as a slouching ape like creature distantly related to modern man boule s ideas would define discussions of neanderthals for some time 24 32 33 34 35 boule suggested two different lineages existed in ice age europe a more evolved one descending from the british piltdown man a hoax to the french grimaldi man a cro magnon which would culminate with modern europeans and a less evolved dead end lineage leading from the german heidelberg man to neanderthal man as the focus of human origins shifted from europe to east asia out of asia hypothesis by the 1930s and 40s with discoveries such as java man and peking man as well as the marginalisation of piltdown man the question of a neanderthal phase in human evolution once again became a topic of discussion the definition of neanderthal expanded to include several anatomically variable specimens around the old world in the contextual debate between monogenism and polycentrism some specimens were described as progressive neanderthals which would evolve into some local subspecies of h sapiens polycentricism while the classic neanderthals of the western european würm glaciation would not 36 in the 1970s with the formulation of cladistics and the consequent refinement of the anatomical definitions of species this global morphological pattern fell apart the neanderthaloids of africa and east asia were reclassified as distant relatives to h neanderthalensis 37 at around the same time the out of asia hypothesis was overturned by the out of africa hypothesis which posited that all modern humans share a fully modern common ancestor monogenism there were two main schools of thought modern humans competitively replaced all other archaic humans replacement or extensively interbred with them while dispersing throughout the world regional continuity 38 in 2010 the first mapping of the neanderthal genome demonstrated that there was at least some interbreeding between archaic and modern humans 39 subsequent genetic studies continue to raise questions on how neanderthals should be classified relative to modern humans 40 classification edit neanderthals can be classified as a unique species as h neanderthalensis though some authors argue expanding the definition of h sapiens to include other ancient humans with combinations such as h sapiens neanderthalensis the latter opinion has generally been justified using neanderthal genetics as well as inferences on the complexity of neanderthal behaviour based on the archaeological record while there seems to have been some genetic contact between these two groups there are potential indicators of hybrid incompatibility e which if true could justify species distinction the crux of the issue lies in the vagueness of the term species the species problem 40 42 43 among identified archaic humans neanderthals are most closely related to denisovans based on nuclear dna ndna analyses denisovans are an enigmatic group of late pleistocene humans only recognisable by a genetic signature rather than anatomical landmarks 44 likely due to more recent interbreeding episodes the mitochondrial dna mtdna passed down maternally 45 and y chromosome dna passed down paternally 44 are more similar between neanderthals and modern humans than between neanderthals and denisovans similarly 430 000 year old fossils from the sima de los huesos are more closely related to neanderthals in their ndna but their mtdna aligns more closely with denisovans 46 a 2021 phylogeny of some middle pleistocene and neanderthal fossils using tip dating 47 homo h habilis h erectus tighennif saldanha petralona kabwe 1 ceprano bodo mauer 1 arago narmada maba ndutu neanderthal clade sima de los huesos saccopastore tabun gibraltar 1 spy neanderthal 1 amud 1 saint césaire shanidar la chapelle aux saints 1 la ferrassie 1 h sapiens evolution edit a pre neanderthal skull miguelón from sima de los huesos spain typical neanderthal skull traits appear in the european fossil record near the beginning of the middle pleistocene in specimens usually classified as h heidelbergensis these pre neanderthals seem to have gradually accreted these traits neanderthalization as populations adapted to the cold environment evolving a hyper arctic physique circumpolar peoples namely inuit groups are often used as modern neanderthal analogues to study hyper arctic adaptations additionally glacial periods may have forced populations into small refugia reducing genetic diversity leading to the development of other typical neanderthal traits through genetic drift or pleiotropy 37 the 120 000 to 140 000 year old israeli nesher ramla remains may represent one such source population which would recolonise europe following the penultimate glacial period 48 the occurrence of typical neanderthal traits in the middle pleistocene was highly variable even among individuals of the same population 37 the speed of neanderthalization may have also been impeded by gene flow between western europe and africa this is exemplified by anomalous specimens which lack typical neanderthal traits such as ceprano man 46 the first recognisable early neanderthals show up in the fossil record by the end of marine isotope stage 7 beginning roughly 243 000 years ago and give way to classic or late neanderthals by the end of marine isotope stage 5e this spans the penultimate glacial period to the last interglacial some early neanderthal teeth from payré france potentially date to mis 8 but the dating is uncertain 1 37 genetic data usually estimates that neanderthals diverged from modern humans sometime during the early middle pleistocene neanderthals and denisovans are more closely related to each other than they are to modern humans meaning the neanderthal denisovan split occurred sometime later 46 49 50 before splitting neanderthal denisovans or neandersovans migrating out of africa into europe apparently interbred with an unidentified superarchaic human species who were already present there these superarchaics were the descendants of a very early migration out of africa around 1 9 million years ago 51 genetic data indicates that neanderthals at least after 100 000 years ago maintained a small population with low genetic diversity weakening natural selection and proliferating harmful mutations it is unclear how long european populations suffered this population stress or to what extent it influenced neanderthalization 52 demographics edit further information neanderthals in southwest asia neanderthals in gibraltar and list of neanderthal sites range edit neanderthal skull from tabun cave israel at the israel museum the neanderthals were the first human species to permanently occupy europe 53 while pre neanderthals are mostly identified around western europe classic neanderthals are recorded across europe as well as southwest 37 and central asia up to the altai mountains in southern siberia pre and early neanderthals seem to have continuously occupied only france spain and italy although some appear to have moved out of this core area to form temporary settlements eastward without leaving europe nonetheless southwestern france has the highest density of sites for pre and classic neanderthals 54 the southernmost find was recorded at shuqba cave palestine 55 reports of neanderthals from the north african jebel irhoud 56 and haua fteah 57 have been reidentified as h sapiens their easternmost presence is recorded at denisova cave siberia 85 e the southeast chinese maba man a skull shares several physical attributes with neanderthals although these may be the result of convergent evolution rather than neanderthals extending their range to the pacific ocean 58 the northernmost bound is generally accepted to have been 55 n with unambiguous sites known between 50 53 n but this is difficult to assess because glacial advances destroy most human remains 59 60 middle palaeolithic artefacts have been found up to 60 n on the russian plains 61 62 63 but these are more likely attributed to modern humans 64 map of europe 20 000 to 70 000 years ago during the würm glaciation it is possible neanderthal range expanded and contracted as the ice retreated and grew respectively to avoid permafrost areas residing in certain refuge zones during glacial maxima 65 stable environments with mild mean annual temperatures may have been the most suitable neanderthal habitats 66 population edit like modern humans neanderthals probably descended from a very small population with an effective population the number of individuals who can bear or father children of 3 000 to 12 000 approximately neanderthals maintained this low population proliferating weakly harmful genes due to the reduced effectivity of natural selection 67 68 archaeological evidence suggests that the initial cro magnon population was approximately 10 times higher than neanderthals 69 compared to cro magnons neanderthals may have been at a demographic disadvantage due to a lower fertility rate a higher infant mortality rate or a combination of the two 70 65 in a sample of 206 neanderthals based on the abundance of young and mature adults in comparison to other age demographics about 80 of them above the age of 20 died before reaching 40 this high mortality rate was probably due to their high stress environment 71 infant mortality was estimated to have been very high for neanderthals about 43 in northern eurasia 72 ontogeny and life history edit neanderthal brain size at birth was similar to modern humans and constrained by the same obstetric factors mothers giving birth to infants with heads too large to pass through the birth canal would be selected against growth in brain volume occurred at a faster pace in neanderthal infants than in modern human infants but growth of the brain did not reach completion earlier in neanderthals than in modern humans owing to the larger brain size of the former 73 the rate of incisor crown formation in neanderthals is also indicative of an accelerated pattern of life history relative to modern humans 74 estimates of the age at weaning of neanderthals vary barium levels in the enamel of a belgian neanderthal tooth from scladina suggest a weaning age of 1 2 years 75 trace element analysis of a neanderthal tooth from payre suggests that weaning occurred at about 2 5 years of age 76 locations of neanderthal finds in europe and the levant view references show map of europe locations of neanderthal finds in eurasia note part of spain is cut off view references show map of asia anatomy edit main article neanderthal anatomy skull edit neanderthal skull features the neanderthal skull has a flat and broad skullcap rounded supraorbital torus the buldge that forms the brow ridges larger wide orbits eye sockets a broad nose mid facial prognathism the face projects far from the base of the skull an en bombe bomb like skull shape when viewed from the back a fossa depression on the back of the skull below the level of the inion suprainiac fossa and an occipital bun bony projection at the back of the skull like those of other archaic humans their jaws lack a true chin 37 the neanderthal braincase averages 1 640 cm 3 100 cu in for males and 1 460 cm 3 89 cu in for females 77 which is significantly larger than the averages for all 147 homonids studied 78 the largest neanderthal brain amud 1 was calculated to be 1 736 cm 3 105 9 cu in one of the largest ever recorded in humans 79 neanderthal brain organisation differs in areas related to cognition and language which may be implicated in the comparative simplicity of neanderthal behaviour to cro magnons in the archaeological record 80 81 82 neanderthals had large and wide noses probably an adaptation to warm greater quantities of cold air to fuel their assumed heightened metabolism and activity levels 83 a large nose does not necessarily equate to a better sense of smell and neurologically because the olfactory bulbs are smaller neanderthals may have had a poorer sense of smell and olfactory memory than modern humans 84 the cheek bones are strong the incisors are large and shovel shaped the molars have a swollen tooth pulp taurodontism and there is a gap behind the molars retromolar space these dental traits are usually interpreted as a response to habitual heavy loading of the front teeth either to process mechanically challenging or attritive foods or because neanderthals regularly used the mouth as a third hand 85 build edit though neanderthals are often imagined as short and stocky they were on average the same height as pre industrial europeans or even slightly taller 86 the body mass index of the average european neanderthal was comparable to 20th century canadians and americans 86 neanderthal body size varied by location west asian neanderthals were taller and more slightly built than european neanderthals 87 in a sample of 45 neanderthal long bones from 14 men and 7 women the average height was 164 to 168 cm 5 ft 5 in to 5 ft 6 in for males and 152 to 156 cm 5 ft 0 in to 5 ft 1 in for females 86 the fossil record shows that adult neanderthals varied from about 147 5 to 177 cm 4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 10 in in height 88 the average male body mass index was 26 9 28 3 86 89 neandert...