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eetening and acid gas removal refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various alkylamines commonly referred to simply as amines to remove hydrogen sulfide h 2 s and carbon dioxide co 2 from gases 97 98 99 it is a common unit process used in refineries and is also used in petrochemical plants natural gas processing plants and other industries the claus process is a desulfurizing process recovering elemental sulfur from gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen sulfide h 2 s first patented in 1883 by the chemist carl friedrich claus the claus process remains the most important desulfurization process in the petrochemicals industry it is standard at oil refineries natural gas processing plants and gasification or synthesis gas plants in 2005 byproduct sulfur from hydrocarbon processing facilities constituted the vast majority of the 64 teragrams 64 million metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide 100 101 102 103 104 64 power generation edit cooling towers circulate cooling water boiler plants generates steam for steam generators and instrument air systems include pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical substation waste treatment edit wastewater collection and treating systems consist of api separators dissolved air flotation daf units and further treatment units such as an activated sludge biotreater to make water suitable for reuse or for disposal 105 solvent refining uses solvent such as cresol or furfural to remove unwanted mainly aromatics from lubricating oil stock or diesel stock solvent dewaxing removes the heavy waxy constituents petrolatum from vacuum distillation products storage tanks for storing crude oil and finished products usually vertical cylindrical vessels with some sort of vapor emission control and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills flow diagram of typical refinery edit the image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various unit processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products the diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations the diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam cooling water and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products 1 106 107 108 schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery there are many process configurations other than that depicted above for example the vacuum distillation unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as spindle oil used in the textile industry light machine oil motor oil and various waxes crude oil distillation unit edit the crude oil distillation unit cdu is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries the cdu distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges each of which is then processed further in the other refinery processing units the cdu is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure 1 2 69 below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit the incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with some of the hot distilled fractions and other streams it is then desalted to remove inorganic salts primarily sodium chloride following the desalter the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot distilled fractions and other streams it is then heated in a fuel fired furnace fired heater to a temperature of about 398 c and routed into the bottom of the distillation unit the cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil and partially by either an air cooled or water cooled condenser additional heat is removed from the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below as shown in the flow diagram the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha the fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called sidecuts each of the sidecuts i e the kerosene light gas oil and heavy gas oil is cooled by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil all of the fractions i e the overhead naphtha the sidecuts and the bottom residue are sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries location of refineries edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed may 2026 learn how and when to remove this message a party searching for a site to construct a refinery or a chemical plant needs to consider the following issues the site has to be reasonably far from residential areas infrastructure should be available for the supply of raw materials and shipment of products to markets energy to operate the plant should be available facilities should be available for waste disposal factors affecting site selection for oil refinery availability of land conditions of traffic and transportation conditions of utilities power supply water supply availability of labours and resources refineries that use a large amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water oil refineries therefore are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a seashore nearby a port such location also gives access to transportation by river or by sea the advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident and oil companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline a pipeline may not be practical for products with small output and railcars road tankers and barges are used petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing fine fractionating plants need spaces for further processing of a large volume of refinery products or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather than at blending terminals safety and environment edit fire extinguishing operations after the texas city refinery explosion the refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere see ap 42 compilation of air pollutant emission factors and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns 105 risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion and noise health effects due to industrial noise 109 many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release and most refineries have installed the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies in the united states there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries and no major refinery has been built in the country since marathon s garyville louisiana facility in 1976 however many existing refineries have been expanded during that time environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent the construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the united states 110 additionally many refineries more than 100 since the 1980s have closed due to obsolescence and or merger activity within the industry itself 111 environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major urban areas nevertheless there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose health risks 112 113 in california s contra costa county and solano county a shoreline necklace of refineries built in the early 20th century before this area was populated and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in richmond martinez pacheco concord pittsburg vallejo and benicia with occasional accidental events that require shelter in place orders to the adjacent populations a number of refineries are located in sherwood park alberta directly adjacent to the city of edmonton which has a population of over 1 000 000 residents 114 niosh criteria for occupational exposure to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977 115 worker health edit background edit modern petroleum refining involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions that produce a wide variety of petroleum based products 116 117 many of these reactions require precise temperature and pressure parameters 118 the equipment and monitoring required to ensure the proper progression of these processes is complex and has evolved through the advancement of the scientific field of petroleum engineering 119 120 the wide array of high pressure and or high temperature reactions along with the necessary chemical additives or extracted contaminants produces an astonishing number of potential health hazards to the oil refinery worker 121 122 through the advancement of technical chemical and petroleum engineering the vast majority of these processes are automated and enclosed thus greatly reducing the potential health impact to workers 123 however depending on the specific process in which a worker is engaged as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which he she works significant health hazards remain 124 although occupational injuries in the united states were not routinely tracked and reported at the time reports of the health impacts of working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s for instance an explosion in a chicago refinery killed 20 workers in 1890 125 since then numerous fires explosions and other significant events have from time to time drawn the public s attention to the health of oil refinery workers 126 such events continue in the 21st century with explosions reported in refineries in wisconsin and germany in 2018 127 however there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers chemical exposures edit given the highly automated and technically advanced nature of modern petroleum refineries nearly all processes are contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to earlier times 123 however certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms and expose workers to a number of chemical see table above or physical described below hazards 128 129 examples of these scenarios include system failures leaks explosions etc 130 131 standard inspection product sampling process turnaround or equipment maintenance cleaning activities 128 129 a 2021 systematic review associated working in the petrochemical industry with increased risk of various cancers such as mesothelioma it also found reduced risks of other cancers such as stomach and rectal the systematic review did mention that several of the associations were not due to factors directly related to the petroleum industry rather were related to lifestyle factors such as smoking evidence for adverse health effects for nearby residents was also weak with the evidence primarily centering around neighborhoods in developed countries 132 btx stands for benzene toluene xylene this is a group of common volatile organic compounds vocs that are found in the oil refinery environment and serve as a paradigm for more in depth discussion of occupational exposure limits chemical exposure and surveillance among refinery workers 133 134 the most important route of exposure for btx chemicals is inhalation due to the low boiling point of these chemicals the majority of the gaseous production of btx occurs during tank cleaning and fuel transfer which causes offgassing of these chemicals into the air 135 exposure can also occur through ingestion via contaminated water but this is unlikely in an occupational setting 136 dermal exposure and absorption is also possible but is again less likely in an occupational setting where appropriate personal protective equipment is in place 136 in the united states the occupational safety and health administration osha national institute for occupational safety and health niosh and american conference of governmental industrial hygienists acgih have all established occupational exposure limits oels for many of the chemicals above that workers may be exposed to in petroleum refineries 137 138 139 occupational exposure limits for btx chemicals osha pel 8 hour twa calosha pel 8 hour twa niosh rel 10 hour twa acgih tlv 8 hour twa benzene 10 ppm 1 ppm 0 1 ppm 0 5 ppm toluene 200 ppm 10 ppm 100 ppm 20 ppm xylene 100 ppmx 100 ppm 100 ppm 100 ppm sources 140 141 142 137 143 benzene in particular has multiple biomarkers that can be measured to determine exposure benzene itself can be measured in the breath blood and urine and metabolites such as phenol t t muconic acid t t ma and s phenylmercapturic acid s pma can be measured in urine 144 in addition to monitoring the exposure levels via these biomarkers employers are required by osha to perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of some of the feared hematologic outcomes of which the most widely recognized is leukemia required testing includes complete blood count with cell differentials and peripheral blood smear on a regular basis 145 the utility of these tests is supported by formal scientific studies 146 potential chemical exposure by process edit process potential chemical exposure 147 common health concerns 148 solvent extraction and dewaxing phenol 149 neurologic symptoms muscle weakness skin irritation furfural 150 skin irritation glycols central nervous system depression weakness irritation of the eyes skin nose throat methyl ethyl ketone 151 airway irritation cough dyspnea pulmonary edema thermal cracking hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness ammonia 154 respiratory tract irritation dyspnea pulmonary edema skin burns catalytic cracking hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness phenol 149 neurologic symptoms muscle weakness skin irritation ammonia 154 respiratory tract irritation dyspnea pulmonary edema skin burns mercaptan 155 156 cyanosis and narcosis irritation of the respiratory tract skin and eyes nickel carbonyl 157 headache teratogen weakness chest abdominal pain lung and nasal cancer catalytic reforming hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain benzene 158 leukemia nervous system effects respiratory symptoms isomerization hydrochloric acid skin damage respiratory tract irritation eye burns hydrogen chloride respiratory tract...