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t anglia in 1643 notably at the battle of gainsborough on 28 july 31 he was subsequently appointed the governor of the isle of ely 32 and a colonel in the eastern association 26 marston moor 1644 by the time of the battle of marston moor in july 1644 cromwell had risen to the rank of lieutenant general of horse in manchester s army his cavalry s success in breaking the ranks of the royalist cavalry and then attacking their infantry from the rear at marston moor was a major factor in the parliamentarian victory cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck stepping away briefly to receive treatment but returning to help secure the victory 33 after cromwell s nephew was killed at marston moor he wrote a letter to his brother in law valentine walton marston moor secured the north of england for the parliamentarians but failed to end royalist resistance 34 the indecisive outcome of the second battle of newbury in october meant that by the end of 1644 the war still showed no sign of ending cromwell s experience at newbury where manchester had let the king s army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre led to a serious dispute with manchester whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war manchester later accused cromwell of recruiting men of low birth as officers in the army to which he replied if you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse honest men will follow them i would rather have a plain russet coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else 35 at this time cromwell also fell into dispute with major general lawrence crawford a scottish covenanter attached to manchester s army who objected to cromwell s encouragement of unorthodox independents and anabaptists 36 he was also charged with familism by the scottish presbyterian samuel rutherford in response to his letter to the house of commons in 1645 37 battle of naseby 1645 cromwell at the battle of naseby by charles landseer 1851 at the critical battle of naseby in june 1645 the new model army smashed the king s major army cromwell led his wing with great success at naseby again routing the royalist cavalry at the battle of langport on 10 july cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable royalist field army naseby and langport effectively ended the king s hopes of victory and the subsequent parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified royalist positions in the west of england in october 1645 cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable catholic fortress basing house later to be accused of killing 100 of its 300 man royalist garrison after its surrender 38 he also took part in successful sieges at bridgwater sherborne bristol devizes and winchester then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in devon and cornwall charles i surrendered to the scots on 5 may 1646 effectively ending the first english civil war cromwell and fairfax took the royalists formal surrender at oxford in june 26 politics 1647 1649 in february 1647 cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month by the time he recovered the parliamentarians were split over the issue of the king a majority in both houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the scottish army disband much of the new model army and restore charles i in return for a presbyterian settlement of the church cromwell rejected the scottish model of presbyterianism which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another the new model army radicalised by parliament s failure to pay the wages it was owed petitioned against these changes but the commons declared the petition unlawful in may 1647 cromwell was sent to the army s headquarters in saffron walden to negotiate with them but failed to agree 39 in june 1647 a troop of cavalry under cornet george joyce seized the king from parliament s imprisonment with the king now present cromwell was eager to find out what conditions the king would acquiesce to if his authority was restored the king appeared to be willing to compromise so cromwell employed his son in law henry ireton to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the heads of proposals pleased cromwell in principle and allowed for further negotiations 40 it was designed to check the powers of the executive to set up regularly elected parliaments and to restore a non compulsory episcopalian settlement b many in the army such as the levellers led by john lilburne thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men leading to tense debates in putney during the autumn of 1647 between fairfax cromwell and ireton on the one hand and levellers like colonel rainsborough on the other the putney debates broke up without reaching a resolution 43 44 second civil war king s execution main articles high court of justice for the trial of charles i and execution of charles i the trial of charles i on 4 january 1649 the failure to conclude a political agreement with the king led eventually to the outbreak of the second english civil war in 1648 when the king tried to regain power by force of arms cromwell first put down a royalist uprising in south wales led by rowland laugharne winning back chepstow castle on 25 may and six days later forcing the surrender of tenby the castle at carmarthen was destroyed by burning the much stronger castle at pembroke fell only after an eight week siege cromwell dealt leniently with ex royalist soldiers but less so with those who had formerly been members of the parliamentary army john poyer eventually being executed in london after the drawing of lots 45 cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro royalist scottish army the engagers who had invaded england at preston in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9 000 he won a decisive victory against an army twice as large 46 47 during 1648 cromwell s letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages for example after the battle of preston study of psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell parliament that they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land a letter to oliver st john in september 1648 urged him to read isaiah 8 in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive on four occasions in letters in 1648 he referred to the story of gideon s defeat of the midianites at ain harod 48 these letters suggest that it was cromwell s faith rather than a commitment to radical politics coupled with parliament s decision to engage in negotiations with the king at the treaty of newport that convinced him that god had spoken against both the king and parliament as lawful authorities for cromwell the army was now god s chosen instrument 49 the episode shows cromwell s firm belief in providentialism that god was actively directing the affairs of the world through the actions of chosen people whom god had provided for such purposes during the civil wars cromwell believed that he was one of these people and he interpreted victories as indications of god s approval and defeats as signs that god was pointing him in another direction 50 in december 1648 in an episode that became known as pride s purge a troop of soldiers headed by colonel thomas pride forcibly removed from the long parliament all those who were not supporters of the grandees in the new model army and the independents 51 thus weakened the remaining body of mps known as the rump parliament agreed that charles should be tried for treason cromwell was still in the north of england dealing with royalist resistance when these events took place but then returned to london on the day after pride s purge he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the king s trial and execution believing that killing charles was the only way to end the civil wars 26 cromwell approved thomas brook s address to the house of commons which justified the trial and the king s execution on the basis of the book of numbers chapter 35 and particularly verse 33 the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein but by the blood of him that shed it 52 charles s death warrant was signed by 59 of the trying court s members including cromwell the third to sign it 53 though it was not unprecedented execution of the king or regicide was controversial if for no other reason than the doctrine of the divine right of kings 54 thus even after a trial it was difficult to get ordinary men to go along with it none of the officers charged with supervising the execution wanted to sign the order for the actual beheading so they brought their dispute to cromwell oliver seized a pen and scribbled out the order and handed the pen to the second officer colonel hacker who stooped to sign it the execution could now proceed 55 although fairfax conspicuously refused to sign 56 charles i was executed on 30 january 1649 26 establishment of the commonwealth 1649 arms of the commonwealth after the king s execution a republic was declared known as the commonwealth of england the rump parliament exercised both executive and legislative powers with a smaller council of state also having some executive functions cromwell remained a member of the rump and was appointed a member of the council in the early months after charles s execution cromwell tried but failed to unite the original royal independents led by st john and saye and sele which had fractured during 1648 cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of civil war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s only st john was persuaded to retain his seat in parliament the royalists meanwhile had regrouped in ireland having signed a treaty with the irish known as confederate catholics in march the rump chose cromwell to command a campaign against them preparations for an invasion of ireland occupied him in the subsequent months in the latter part of the 1640s cromwell came across political dissidence in the new model army the leveller or agitator movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty extended suffrage equality before the law and religious tolerance these sentiments were expressed in the 1647 manifesto agreement of the people cromwell and the rest of the grandees disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people they believed that the vote should extend only to the landowners in the putney debates of 1647 the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for england rebellions and mutinies followed the debates and in 1649 the bishopsgate mutiny resulted in the leveller robert lockyer s execution by firing squad the next month the banbury mutiny occurred with similar results cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions after quelling leveller mutinies within the english army at andover and burford in may he departed for ireland from bristol at the end of july 57 irish campaign 1649 1650 see also irish confederate wars and cromwellian conquest of ireland portrait of oliver cromwell by robert walker c 1649 on display at the national portrait gallery cromwell led a parliamentary invasion of ireland from 1649 to 1650 parliament s key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the irish confederate catholics and english royalists signed in 1649 the confederate royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the commonwealth however the political situation in ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured there were also separate forces of irish catholics who were opposed to the royalist alliance and protestant royalist forces that were gradually moving towards parliament cromwell said in a speech to the army council on 23 march that i had rather be overthrown by a cavalierish interest than a scotch interest i had rather be overthrown by a scotch interest than an irish interest and i think of all this is the most dangerous 58 cromwell s hostility to the irish was religious as well as political he was passionately opposed to the catholic church which he saw as denying the primacy of the bible in favour of papal and clerical authority and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of protestants in continental europe 59 cromwell s association of catholicism with persecution was deepened with the irish rebellion of 1641 this rebellion although intended to be bloodless was marked by massacres of english and scottish protestant settlers by irish gaels and old english in ireland and highland scot catholics in ireland these settlers had settled on land seized from former native catholic owners to make way for the non native protestants these factors contributed to the brutality of the cromwell military campaign in ireland 60 parliament had planned to re conquer ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647 cromwell s invasion of 1649 was much larger and with the civil war in england over could be regularly reinforced and supplied his nine month military campaign was brief and effective though it did not end the war in ireland before his invasion parliamentarian forces held outposts only in dublin and derry when he departed ireland they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country after he landed at dublin on 15 august 1649 itself only recently defended from an irish and english royalist attack at the battle of rathmines cromwell took the fortified port towns of drogheda and wexford to secure the supply lines from england at the siege of drogheda in september 1649 his troops killed nearly 3 500 people after the town s capture around 2 700 royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms including some civilians prisoners and roman catholic priests 61 cromwell wrote afterwards i am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of god upon these barbarous wretches who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future which are satisfactory grounds for such actions which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret 62 at the siege of wexford in october another massacre took place under confused circumstances while cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms some of his soldiers broke into the town killed 2 000 irish troops and up to 1 500 civilians and burned much of the town 63 64 after taking drogheda cromwell sent a column north to ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to conduct the siege of waterford kilkenny and clonmel in ireland s south east the siege of kilkenny was protracted but was eventually forced to surrender on terms as did many other towns like new ross and...