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ally viewed as pathogens that cause protein amyloid fibers to accumulate into neurodegenerative plaques susan lindquist led research showing that yeast use prions to pass on evolutionarily beneficial traits 26 viroids edit main article viroids not to be confused with virusoids or viruses viroids are the smallest known infectious pathogens viroids are small single stranded circular rna that are only known to cause plant diseases such as the potato spindle tuber viroid that affects various agricultural crops viroid rna is not protected by a protein coat and it does not encode any proteins only acting as a ribozyme to catalyze other biochemical reactions 27 viruses edit main article virus viruses are generally between 20 200 nm in diameter 28 for survival and replication viruses inject their genome into host cells insert those genes into the host genome and hijack the host s machinery to produce hundreds of new viruses until the cell bursts open to release them for additional infections the lytic cycle describes this active state of rapidly killing hosts while the lysogenic cycle describes potentially hundreds of years of dormancy while integrated in the host genome 29 alongside the taxonomy organized by the international committee on taxonomy of viruses ictv the baltimore classification separates viruses by seven classes of mrna production 30 i dsdna viruses e g adenoviruses herpesviruses and poxviruses cause herpes chickenpox and smallpox ii ssdna viruses strand or sense dna e g parvoviruses include parvovirus b19 iii dsrna viruses e g reoviruses include rotaviruses iv ssrna viruses strand or sense rna e g coronaviruses picornaviruses and togaviruses cause covid 19 dengue fever hepatitis a hepatitis c rubella and yellow fever v ssrna viruses strand or antisense rna e g orthomyxoviruses and rhabdoviruses cause ebola influenza measles mumps and rabies vi ssrna rt viruses strand or sense rna with dna intermediate in life cycle e g retroviruses cause hiv aids vii dsdna rt viruses dna with rna intermediate in life cycle e g hepadnaviruses cause hepatitis b other parasites edit main article human parasites two pinworms next to a ruler measuring 6 millimeters in length protozoans are single celled eukaryotes that feed on microorganisms and organic tissues many protozoans act as pathogenic parasites to cause diseases like malaria amoebiasis giardiasis toxoplasmosis cryptosporidiosis trichomoniasis chagas disease leishmaniasis african trypanosomiasis sleeping sickness acanthamoeba keratitis and primary amoebic meningoencephalitis naegleriasis 31 parasitic worms helminths are macroparasites that can be seen by the naked eye worms live and feed in their living host acquiring nutrients and shelter in the digestive tract or bloodstream of their host they also manipulate the host s immune system by secreting immunomodulatory products which allows them to live in their host for years 32 helminthiasis is the generalized term for parasitic worm infections which typically involve roundworms tapeworms and flatworms 33 pathogen hosts edit bacteria edit while bacteria are typically viewed as pathogens they serve as hosts to bacteriophage viruses commonly known as phages the bacteriophage life cycle involves the viruses injecting their genome into bacterial cells inserting those genes into the bacterial genome and hijacking the bacteria s machinery to produce hundreds of new phages until the cell bursts open to release them for additional infections typically bacteriophages are only capable of infecting a specific species or strain 34 streptococcus pyogenes uses a cas9 nuclease to cleave foreign dna matching the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats crispr associated with bacteriophages removing the viral genes to avoid infection this mechanism has been modified for artificial crispr gene editing 35 plants edit plants can play host to a wide range of pathogen types including viruses bacteria fungi nematodes and even other plants 36 notable plant viruses include the papaya ringspot virus which has caused millions of dollars of damage to farmers in hawaii and southeast asia 37 and the tobacco mosaic virus which caused scientist martinus beijerinck to coin the term virus in 1898 38 bacterial plant pathogens cause leaf spots blight and rot in many plant species 39 the most common bacterial pathogens for plants are pseudomonas syringae and ralstonia solanacearum which cause leaf browning and other issues in potatoes tomatoes and bananas 39 brown rot fungal disease on an apple brown rot typically target a variety of top fruits fungi are another major pathogen type for plants they can cause a wide variety of issues such as shorter plant height growths or pits on tree trunks root or seed rot and leaf spots 40 common and serious plant fungi include the rice blast fungus dutch elm disease chestnut blight and the black knot and brown rot diseases of cherries plums and peaches it is estimated that pathogenic fungi alone cause up to a 65 reduction in crop yield 39 overall plants have a wide array of pathogens and it has been estimated that only 3 of the disease caused by plant pathogens can be managed 39 animals edit animals often get infected with many of the same or similar pathogens as humans including prions viruses bacteria and fungi while wild animals often get illnesses the larger danger is for livestock animals it is estimated that in rural settings 90 or more of livestock deaths can be attributed to pathogens 41 42 animal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy tses involving prions include bovine spongiform encephalopathy mad cow disease chronic wasting disease scrapie transmissible mink encephalopathy feline spongiform encephalopathy and ungulate spongiform encephalopathy 25 43 other animal diseases include a variety of immunodeficiency disorders caused by viruses related to human immunodeficiency virus hiv such as biv and fiv 44 humans edit main article human pathogen humans can be infected with many types of pathogens including prions viruses bacteria and fungi causing symptoms like sneezing coughing fever vomiting and potentially lethal organ failure while some symptoms are caused by the pathogenic infection others are caused by the immune system s efforts to kill the pathogen such as feverishly high body temperatures meant to denature pathogenic cells 5 treatment edit prions edit despite many attempts no therapy has been shown to halt the progression of prion diseases 45 viruses edit a variety of prevention and treatment options exist for some viral pathogens vaccines are one common and effective preventive measure against a variety of viral pathogens 46 vaccines prime the immune system of the host so that when the potential host encounters the virus in the wild the immune system can defend against infection quickly vaccines designed against viruses include annual influenza vaccines and the two dose mmr vaccine against measles mumps and rubella 47 vaccines are not available against the viruses responsible for hiv aids dengue and chikungunya 48 treatment of viral infections often involves treating the symptoms of the infection rather than providing medication to combat the viral pathogen itself 49 50 treating the symptoms of a viral infection gives the host immune system time to develop antibodies against the viral pathogen however for hiv highly active antiretroviral therapy haart is conducted to prevent the viral disease from progressing into aids as immune cells are lost 51 bacteria edit a structure of doxycycline a tetracycline class antibiotic much like viral pathogens infection by certain bacterial pathogens can be prevented via vaccines 47 vaccines against bacterial pathogens include the anthrax vaccine and pneumococcal vaccine many other bacterial pathogens lack vaccines as a preventive measure but infection by these bacteria can often be treated or prevented with antibiotics common antibiotics include amoxicillin ciprofloxacin and doxycycline each antibiotic has different bacteria that it is effective against and has different mechanisms to kill that bacteria for example doxycycline inhibits the synthesis of new proteins in both gram negative and gram positive bacteria which makes it a broad spectrum antibiotic capable of killing most bacterial species 52 due to misuse of antibiotics such as prematurely ended prescriptions exposing bacteria to evolutionary pressure under sublethal doses some bacterial pathogens have developed antibiotic resistance 53 for example a genetically distinct strain of staphylococcus aureus called mrsa is resistant to the commonly prescribed beta lactam antibiotics a 2013 report from the centers for disease control and prevention cdc estimated that in the united states at least 2 million people get an antibiotic resistant bacterial infection annually with at least 23 000 of those patients dying from the infection 54 due to their indispensability in combating bacteria new antibiotics are required for medical care one target for new antimicrobial medications involves inhibiting dna methyltransferases as these proteins control the levels of expression for other genes such as those encoding virulence factors 55 56 fungi edit infection by fungal pathogens is treated with anti fungal medication athlete s foot jock itch and ringworm are fungal skin infections that are treated with topical anti fungal medications like clotrimazole 57 infections involving the yeast species candida albicans cause oral thrush and vaginal yeast infections these internal infections can either be treated with anti fungal creams or with oral medication common anti fungal drugs for internal infections include the echinocandin family of drugs and fluconazole 58 algae edit while algae are commonly not thought of as pathogens the genus prototheca causes disease in humans 59 14 treatment for protothecosis is currently under investigation and there is no consistency in clinical treatment 14 sexual interactions edit many pathogens are capable of sexual interaction among pathogenic bacteria sexual interaction occurs between cells of the same species by the process of genetic transformation transformation involves the transfer of dna from a donor cell to a recipient cell and the integration of the donor dna into the recipient genome through genetic recombination the bacterial pathogens helicobacter pylori haemophilus influenzae legionella pneumophila neisseria gonorrhoeae and streptococcus pneumoniae frequently undergo transformation to modify their genome for additional traits and evasion of host immune cells 60 eukaryotic pathogens are often capable of sexual interaction by a process involving meiosis and fertilization meiosis involves the intimate pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between them examples of eukaryotic pathogens capable of sex include the protozoan parasites plasmodium falciparum toxoplasma gondii trypanosoma brucei giardia intestinalis and the fungi aspergillus fumigatus candida albicans and cryptococcus neoformans 60 viruses may also undergo sexual interaction when two or more viral genomes enter the same host cell this process involves pairing of homologous genomes and recombination between them by a process referred to as multiplicity reactivation the herpes simplex virus human immunodeficiency virus and vaccinia virus undergo this form of sexual interaction 60 these processes of sexual recombination between homologous genomes supports repairs to genetic damage caused by environmental stressors and host immune systems 61 see also edit biology portal medicine portal antigenic escape ecological competence emerging pathogens institute germ theory of disease human pathogen pathogen host interaction database phi base references edit biodictionary graphics descriptions of biological terms explorebiology org retrieved september 1 2026 thomas l september 1972 germs the new england journal of medicine 287 11 553 5 doi 10 1056 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1 2017 reproduction numbers of infectious disease models infectious disease modelling 2 3 288 303 doi 10 1016 j idm 2017 06 002 issn 2468 0427 pmc 6002118 pmid 29928743 alizon s hurford a mideo n et al february 2009 virulence evolution and the trade off hypothesis history current state of affairs and the future journal of evolutionary biology 22 2 245 59 doi 10 1111 j 1420 9101 2008 01658 x pmid 19196383 s2cid 1586057 satoh k ooe k nagayama h et al may 2010 prototheca cutis sp nov a newly discovered pathogen of protothecosis isolated from inflamed human skin international journal of systematic and evolutionary microbiology 60 pt 5 1236 1240 doi 10 1099 ijs 0 016402 0 pmid 19666796 14 6d algae biology libretexts june 26 2018 retrieved october 22 2020 1 2 3 lass flörl c mayr a april 2007 human protothecosis clinical microbiology reviews 20 2 230 42 doi 10 1128 cmr 00032 06 pmc 1865593 pmid 17428884 weiser jn february 2013 the battle with the host over microbial size current opinion in 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