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eatures are grown today 12 and by artificial selection to a hypogaea 17 18 the process of domestication through artificial selection made a hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives the domesticated plants are bushier more compact and have a different pod structure and larger seeds from this center of origin cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary centers of diversity in peru ecuador brazil paraguay and uruguay over time thousands of peanut landraces evolved these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies as listed in the peanut scientific classification table subspecies a h fastigiata types are more upright in their growth habit and have shorter crop cycles subspecies a h hypogaea types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles 12 the oldest known archeological remains of pods have been dated at about 7 600 years old possibly a wild species that was in cultivation or a hypogaea in the early phase of domestication 20 they were found in peru where dry climatic conditions are favorable for the preservation of organic material almost certainly peanut cultivation predated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister many pre columbian cultures such as the moche depicted peanuts in their art 21 cultivation was well established in mesoamerica before the spanish arrived there the conquistadors found the tlālcacahuatl the plant s nahuatl name hence the name in spanish cacahuate offered for sale in the marketplace of tenochtitlan its cultivation was introduced in europe in the 19th century through spain particularly valencia where it is still produced albeit marginally 22 european traders later spread the peanut worldwide and cultivation is now widespread in tropical and subtropical regions in west africa it substantially replaced a crop plant from the same family the bambara groundnut whose seed pods also develop underground 23 peanuts were introduced to the u s during the colonial period and grown as a garden crop 24 9 starting in 1870 they were used as an animal feedstock until human consumption grew in the 1930s 9 george washington carver 1864 1943 championed the peanut as part of his efforts for agricultural extension in the american south where soils were depleted after repeated plantings of cotton he invented and promulgated hundreds of peanut based products including cosmetics paints plastics gasoline and nitroglycerin 25 peanut butter was first manufactured in canada by a process patented in the u s in 1884 by marcellus gilmore edson of montreal 26 peanuts were sold in north america at fairs or by pushcart operators throughout the 19th century 27 peanut butter became well known in the united states after the beech nut company began selling it at the st louis world s fair in 1904 28 the u s department of agriculture initiated a program to encourage agricultural production and human consumption of peanuts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 9 cultivation agronomy world distribution map areas are political and may exceed the actual area under cultivation key green natural range purple introduced 8 peanuts grow best in light sandy loam soil with a ph of 5 9 7 their capacity to fix nitrogen means that providing they nodulate properly peanuts benefit little or not at all from nitrogen containing fertilizer 29 and they improve soil fertility therefore they are valuable in crop rotations also the yield of the peanut crop itself is increased in rotations through reduced diseases pests and weeds for example in texas peanuts in a three year rotation with corn yield 50 more than non rotated peanuts 29 adequate levels of phosphorus potassium calcium magnesium and micronutrients are also necessary for good yields 29 peanuts need warm weather throughout the growing season to develop well they can be grown with as little as 350 mm 14 in of water 30 but for best yields need at least 500 mm 20 in 31 depending on growing conditions and the cultivar of peanut harvest is usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspecies a h fastigiata types and 120 to 150 days after planting for subspecies a h hypogaea types 30 32 33 peanut plants continue to produce flowers when pods are developing therefore some pods are immature even when they are ready for harvest to maximize yield the timing of harvest is important if it is too early too many pods will be unripe if too late the pods will snap off at the stalk and remain in the soil 34 for harvesting the entire plant including most of the roots is removed from the soil 34 the main yield limiting factors in semi arid regions are drought and high temperature stress the stages of reproductive development before flowering at flowering and at early pod development are particularly sensitive to these constraints apart from nitrogen phosphorus and potassium other nutrient deficiencies causing significant yield losses are calcium iron and boron biotic stresses mainly include pests diseases and weeds among insects pests pod borers aphids and mites are of importance the most important diseases are leaf spots rusts and the toxin producing fungus aspergillus 35 in mechanized systems a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods the machine lifts the bush from the ground shakes it then inverts it leaving the plant upside down to keep the peanuts out of the soil this allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original moisture level over three to four days traditionally peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand after the peanuts have dried sufficiently they are threshed removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush 34 cultivation pegs growing into the soil the buried tip of the peg develops into a fruit cultivation at the directorate of groundnut research gujarat india 2009 track type peanut harvester harvesting peanuts by hand haiti 2012 harvest cameroon 2016 varieties there are many peanut cultivars grown around the world the market classes grown in the united states are spanish runner virginia and valencia 36 peanuts are produced in three major areas of the u s the southeastern region which includes alabama georgia and florida the southwestern region which includes new mexico oklahoma and texas and in the general eastern u s which includes virginia north carolina and south carolina 36 in georgia naomi chapman woodroof is responsible for developing the breeding program of peanuts resulting in a harvest almost five times greater 37 the small spanish types are grown in south africa and the southwestern and southeastern united states until 1940 90 of the peanuts grown in the u s state of georgia were spanish types but the trend since then has been larger seeded higher yielding more disease resistant cultivars spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts in the u s the spanish group is primarily grown in new mexico oklahoma and texas 36 pests and diseases if peanut plants are subjected to severe drought during pod formation or if pods are not properly stored they may become contaminated with the mold aspergillus flavus which may produce carcinogenic aflatoxins lower quality and moldy peanuts are more likely to be contaminated 38 the usda tests every truckload of raw peanuts for aflatoxin any containing more than 15 parts per billion are destroyed the industry has manufacturing steps to ensure all peanuts are inspected for aflatoxin 39 peanuts tested to have high aflatoxin are used to make peanut oil where the mold can be removed 40 the ant leaves can be affected by a fungus alternaria arachidis 41 production peanut production 2023 millions of tonnes china 19 2 india 10 3 nigeria 4 3 united states 2 7 sudan 1 4 world 54 3 source faostat of the united nations 42 in 2023 world production of peanuts reported as groundnuts excluding shelled was 54 million tonnes led by china with 36 of the total and india with 19 table allergies main article peanut allergy some people 1 4 2 in europe and the united states experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure symptoms range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock 43 the hygiene hypothesis of allergy states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents like germs and parasites could be causing the increase in food allergies 44 delaying exposure to peanuts in childhood can greatly increase the risk of developing allergy 45 46 peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children but the evidence is inconclusive peanut allergies are associated with family history and intake of soy products 47 refined peanut oil does not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies 48 however crude unrefined peanut oils contain protein which may cause allergic reactions 49 50 some school districts in the u s and elsewhere have banned peanuts and products containing them 51 52 53 however a 2015 study in canada found no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts compared to schools allowing them 54 uses nutrition peanuts valencia raw nutritional value per 100 g 3 5 oz energy 2 385 kj 570 kcal carbohydrates 21 g dietary fiber 9 g fat 48 g saturated 7 g monounsaturated 24 g polyunsaturated 16 g protein 25 g amino acids tryptophan 0 2445 g threonine 0 859 g isoleucine 0 882 g leucine 1 627 g lysine 0 901 g methionine 0 308 g cystine 0 322 g phenylalanine 1 300 g tyrosine 1 020 g valine 1 052 g arginine 3 001 g histidine 0 634 g alanine 0 997 g aspartic acid 3 060 g glutamic acid 5 243 g glycine 1 512 g proline 1 107 g serine 1 236 g vitamins and minerals vitamins quantity dv thiamine b 1 50 0 6 mg riboflavin b 2 23 0 3 mg niacin b 3 81 12 9 mg pantothenic acid b 5 36 1 8 mg vitamin b 6 18 0 3 mg folate b 9 62 246 μg vitamin c 0 0 0 mg vitamin e 44 6 6 mg minerals quantity dv calcium 5 62 mg iron 11 2 mg magnesium 44 184 mg manganese 87 2 0 mg phosphorus 27 336 mg potassium 11 332 mg selenium 13 7 3 μg sodium 0 1 mg zinc 30 3 3 mg other constituents quantity water 4 26 g link to full usda database entry percentages estimated using us recommendations for adults 55 except for potassium which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the national academies 56 raw valencia peanuts are 4 water 48 fat 25 protein and 21 carbohydrates table in a reference amount of 100 grams 3 5 oz peanuts provide 2 385 kilojoules 570 kilocalories of food energy supply 9 g 0 32 oz of dietary fiber and are a rich source defined as more than 20 of the daily value dv of several b vitamins vitamin e and various dietary minerals such as manganese magnesium and phosphorus the fats are mainly polyunsaturated and monounsaturated 83 of total fats when combined table source some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of mortality from certain diseases 57 15 however the study designs do not allow cause and effect to be inferred according to the us food and drug administration scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1 5 ounces per day of most nuts such as peanuts as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease 58 countering malnutrition with their high protein concentration peanuts are used to help reduce or prevent malnutrition plumpy nut mana nutrition and medika mamba are high protein high energy and high nutrient peanut based pastes developed to be used as a therapeutic food by agencies including usaid to help in famine relief in developing countries 59 60 61 peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a lactose free milk like beverage peanut milk developed as a way to reduce malnutrition among children 62 animal feed peanut plant tops and crop residues can be used for silage 63 industrial peanut processing removes the fiber rich hulls in large amounts these can feed livestock particularly ruminants 64 the oilcake residue from oil processing is used as animal feed and soil fertilizer usually in meal powdered form it concentrates the non oil components of peanut seeds and contains some residue oil groundnut cake is a livestock feed mostly used by cattle as protein supplements 65 it is one of the most important and valuable feeds for all types of livestock and one of the most active ingredients for poultry rations 66 poor storage of the cake may sometimes result in its contamination by aflatoxin a naturally occurring mycotoxin that is produced by aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus 67 some peanuts seeds can be fed whole to livestock for example those over the production quota such as in the us or those with a higher aflatoxin content than that permitted by the food regulations but still within the level permitted by animal feed regulations 68 edible products whole peanuts dry roasting is a common method of preparation though the roast flavor is lost more quickly than with oil roasting or blister frying oil roasting after soaking in water 69 boiled peanuts are a popular snack in india china west africa and the southern united states in the u s south boiled peanuts are often prepared in briny water and sold in streetside stands 70 fresh green peanuts not dehydrated are ready for boiling raw dehydrated peanuts must be rehydrated before boiling usually in a bowl full of water overnight 70 peanut oil main article peanut oil peanut oil is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point due to its high monounsaturated fat content it is considered more healthy than saturated oils and is resistant to rancidity the several types of peanut oil include aromatic roasted peanut oil refined peanut oil extra virgin or cold pressed peanut oil and peanut extract refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws in the u s 71 a common cooking and salad oil peanut oil is 46 monounsaturated fats primarily oleic acid 32 polyunsaturated fats primarily linoleic acid and 17 saturated fats primarily palmitic acid source in nutrition table 72 extractable from whole peanuts using a simple water and centrifugation method the oil is being considered by nasa s advanced life support program for future long duration human space missions 73 peanut butter main article peanut butter peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts it often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture such as salt sweeteners or emulsifiers many companies have added twists on traditionally plain peanut butter by adding various flavor varieties such as chocolate birthday cake and cinnamon raisin 74 peanut butter is served as a spread on bread toast or crackers and used to make sandwiches notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich it is also used in a number of confections such as peanut flavored granola bars or croissants and other pastries the united states is a leading exporter of peanut butter 7...