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portal recent changes upload file special pages search search appearance donate create account log in personal tools donate create account log in contents move to sidebar hide top 1 overview 2 the beginning 3 early history integrated circuits 4 next stage electronic packaging 5 recent work 6 limitations 7 see also 8 references toggle the table of contents physics of failure 4 languages čeština فارسی русский 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia mechanical design approach physics of failure is a technique under the practice of reliability design that leverages the knowledge and understanding of the processes and mechanisms that induce failure to predict reliability and improve product performance other definitions of physics of failure include a science based approach to reliability that uses modeling and simulation to design in reliability it helps to understand system performance and reduce decision risk during design and after the equipment is fielded this approach models the root causes of failure such as fatigue fracture wear and corrosion an approach to the design and development of reliable product to prevent failure based on the knowledge of root cause failure mechanisms the physics of failure pof concept is based on the understanding of the relationships between requirements and the physical characteristics of the product and their variation in the manufacturing processes and the reaction of product elements and materials to loads stressors and interaction under loads and their influence on the fitness for use with respect to the use conditions and time 1 overview edit the concept of physics of failure also known as reliability physics involves the use of degradation algorithms that describe how physical chemical mechanical thermal or electrical mechanisms evolve over time and eventually induce failure while the concept of physics of failure is common in many structural fields 2 the specific branding evolved from an attempt to better predict the reliability of early generation electronic parts and systems the beginning edit within the electronics industry the major driver for the implementation of physics of failure was the poor performance of military weapon systems during world war ii 3 during the subsequent decade the united states department of defense funded an extensive amount of effort to especially improve the reliability of electronics 4 with the initial efforts focused on after the fact or statistical methodology 5 unfortunately the rapid evolution of electronics with new designs new materials and new manufacturing processes tended to quickly negate approaches and predictions derived from older technology in addition the statistical approach tended to lead to expensive and time consuming testing the need for different approaches led to the birth of physics of failure at the rome air development center radc 6 under the auspices of the radc the first physics of failure in electronics symposium was held in september 1962 7 the goal of the program was to relate the fundamental physical and chemical behavior of materials to reliability parameters 8 early history integrated circuits edit the initial focus of physics of failure techniques tended to be limited to degradation mechanisms in integrated circuits this was primarily because the rapid evolution of the technology created a need to capture and predict performance several generations ahead of existing product one of the first major successes under predictive physics of failure was a formula 9 developed by james black of motorola to describe the behavior of electromigration electromigration occurs when collisions of electrons cause metal atoms in a conductor to dislodge and move downstream of current flow proportional to current density black used this knowledge in combination with experimental findings to describe the failure rate due to electromigration as mttf a j n e e a k t displaystyle text mttf a j n e frac e_ text a kt where a is a constant based on the cross sectional area of the interconnect j is the current density e a is the activation energy e g 0 7 ev for grain boundary diffusion in aluminum k is the boltzmann constant t is the temperature and n is a scaling factor usually set to 2 according to black physics of failure is typically designed to predict wearout or an increasing failure rate but this initial success by black focused on predicting behavior during operational life or a constant failure rate this is because electromigration in traces can be designed out by following design rules while electromigration at vias are primarily interfacial effects which tend to be defect or process driven leveraging this success additional physics of failure based algorithms have been derived for the three other major degradation mechanisms time dependent dielectric breakdown tddb hot carrier injection hci and negative bias temperature instability nbti in modern integrated circuits equations shown below more recent work has attempted to aggregate these discrete algorithms into a system level prediction 10 tddb τ τo t exp g t εox 11 where τo t 5 4 10 7 exp e a kt g t 120 5 8 kt and εox is the permittivity hci λ hci a 3 exp β vd exp e a kt 12 where λ hci is the failure rate of hci a 3 is an empirical fitting parameter β is an empirical fitting parameter v d is the drain voltage e a is the activation energy of hci typically 0 2 to 0 1 ev k is the boltzmann constant and t is absolute temperature nbti λ a εoxm v t μ p exp e a kt 13 where a is determined empirically by normalizing the above equation m 2 9 v t is the thermal voltage μ p is the surface mobility constant e a is the activation energy of nbti k is the boltzmann constant and t is the absolute temperature next stage electronic packaging edit the resources and successes with integrated circuits and a review of some of the drivers of field failures subsequently motivated the reliability physics community to initiate physics of failure investigations into package level degradation mechanisms an extensive amount of work was performed to develop algorithms that could accurately predict the reliability of interconnects specific interconnects of interest resided at 1st level wire bonds solder bumps die attach 2nd level solder joints and 3rd level plated through holes just as integrated circuit community had four major successes with physics of failure at the die level the component packaging community had four major successes arise from their work in the 1970s and 1980s these were peck 14 predicts time to failure of wire bond bond pad connections when exposed to elevated temperature humidity ttf a 0 r h 2 7 f v exp e a k b t displaystyle text ttf a_ 0 rh 2 7 f v exp left frac e_ a k_ text b t right where a is a constant rh is the relative humidity f v is a voltage function often cited as voltage squared e a is the activation energy k b is the boltzmann constant and t is absolute temperature engelmaier 15 predicts time to failure of solder joints exposed to temperature cycling n f 50 1 2 2 ϵ f δ d 1 c δ d leadless f l d δ α δ t h displaystyle n_ text f 50 frac 1 2 left frac 2 epsilon _ text f delta d right frac 1 c quad delta d text leadless left frac fl_ text d delta alpha delta t h right where ε f is a fatigue ductility coefficient c is a time and temperature dependent constant f is an empirical constant l d is the distance from the neutral point α is the coefficient of thermal expansion δ t is the change in temperature and h is solder joint thickness steinberg 16 predicts time to failure of solder joints exposed to vibration z 0 9 8 3 π 2 psd f n q f n 2 z c 0 00022 b c h r l displaystyle z_ 0 frac 9 8 times 3 sqrt pi 2 times text psd times f_ n times q f_ n 2 quad z_ text c frac 0 00022b chr sqrt l where z is maximum displacement psd is the power spectral density g 2 hz f n is the natural frequency of the cca q is transmissibility assumed to be square root of natural frequency z c is the critical displacement 20 million cycles to failure b is the length of pcb edge parallel to component located at the center of the board c is a component packaging constant h is pcb thickness r is a relative position factor and l is component length ipc tr 579 17 predicts time to failure of plated through holes exposed to temperature cycling σ α e α cu δ t a e e e e cu a e e e a cu e cu for σ s y displaystyle sigma frac alpha _ text e alpha _ text cu delta ta_ text e e_ text e e_ text cu a_ text e e_ text e a_ text cu e_ text cu quad text for sigma leq s_ y n f 0 6 d f 0 75 0 9 s u e exp d f 0 36 0 1785 log 10 5 n f δ ϵ 0 displaystyle n_ text f 0 6 d_ text f 0 75 0 9 frac s_ text u e left frac exp d_ text f 0 36 right 0 1785 log frac 10 5 n_ text f delta epsilon 0 where a is coefficient of thermal expansion cte t is temperature e is elastic modules h is board thickness d is hole diameter t is plating thickness and e and cu label corresponding board and copper properties respectively s u being the ultimate tensile strength and d f being ductility of the plated copper and de is the strain range each of the equations above uses a combination of knowledge of the degradation mechanisms and test experience to develop first order equations that allow the design or reliability engineer to be able to predict time to failure behavior based on information on the design architecture materials and environment recent work edit more recent work in the area of physics of failure has been focused on predicting the time to failure of new materials i e lead free solder 18 19 high k dielectric 20 software programs 21 using the algorithms for prognostic purposes 22 and integrating physics of failure predictions into system level reliability calculations 23 limitations edit there are some limitations with the use of physics of failure in design assessments and reliability prediction the first is physics of failure algorithms typically assume a perfect design attempting to understand the influence of defects can be challenging and often leads to physics of failure pof predictions limited to end of life behavior as opposed to infant mortality or useful operating life in addition some companies have so many use environments think personal computers that performing a pof assessment for each potential combination of temperature vibration humidity power cycling etc would be onerous and potentially of limited value see also edit list of finite element software packages critical plane analysis maintainability references edit jedec jep148 april 2004 reliability qualification of semiconductor devices based on physics of failure risk and opportunity assessment http www iagtcommittee com downloads 08 3 1 20prakash 20patnaik 20 20life 20evaluation 20and 20extension 20program pdf gas turbine materials components life evaluation extension programs dr prakash patnaik director smpl national research council canada institute for aerospace research ottawa canada 21 october 2008 http theriac org deskreference pdfs 2011q1 2011q1 article2 pdf archived 2012 03 26 at the wayback machine a short history of reliability r lusser unreliability of electronics cause and cure redstone arsenal huntsville al dtic document j spiegel and e m bennett military system reliability department of defense contributions ire transactions on reliability and quality control dec 1960 volume rqc 9 issue 3 george h ebel reliability physics in electronics a historical view ieee transactions on reliability vol 47 no 3 sp 1998 september sp 379 this would eventually evolve into the current international reliability physics symposium irps vaccaro reliability and the physics of failure program at radc physics of failure in electronics 1963 pp 4 10 spartan james black mass transport of aluminum by momentum exchange with conducting electrons 6th annual reliability physics symposium november 1967 http www dfrsolutions com uploads publications icwearout_paper pdf e wyrwas l condra and a hava accurate quantitative physics of failure approach to integrated circuit reliability ipc apex expo las vegas nv april 2011 schuegraf and hu a model for gate oxide breakdown ieee trans electron dev may 1994 takeda e suzuki n an empirical model for device degradation due to hot carrier injection ieee electron device letters vol 4 num 4 1983 pp 111 113 chen y f lin m h chou c h chang w c huang s c chang y j fu k y negative bias temperature instability nbti in deep sub micron p gate pmosfets 2000 irw final report p98 101 peck d s new concerns about integrated circuit reliability electron devices ieee transactions on vol 26 no 1 pp 38 43 jan 1979 engelmaier w fatigue life of leadless chip carrier solder joints during power cycling components hybrids and manufacturing technology ieee transactions on vol 6 no 3 pp 232 237 sep 1983 d s steinberg vibration analysis for electronic equipment john wiley sons inc new york first ed 1973 second ed 1988 third ed 2000 ipc tr 579 round robin reliability evaluation of small diameter plated through holes in printed wiring boards september 1988 http www dfrsolutions com uploads publications 2006_blattau_ipc_working pdf n blattau and c hillman an engelmaier model for leadless ceramic chip devices with pb free solder j reliab inf anal cntr vol first quarter p 7 2007 o salmela k andersson a perttula j sarkka and m tammenmaa modified engelmaier s model taking account of different stress levels microelectron reliab vol 48 p 773 2008 raghavan n prasad k statistical outlook into the physics of failure for copper low k intra metal dielectric breakdown reliability physics symposium 2009 ieee international vol no pp 819 824 26 30 april 2009 bukowski j v johnson d a goble w m software reliability feedback a physics of failure approach reliability and maintainability symposium 1992 proceedings annual vol no pp 285 289 21 23 jan 1992 nasa gov nasa prognostic center of excellence http www dfrsolutions com uploads publications 2010_01_rams_paper pdf mcleish j g enhancing mil hdbk 217 reliability predictions with physics of failure methods reliability and maintainability symposium rams 2010 proceedings annual vol no pp 1 6 25 28 jan 2010 retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title physics_of_failure oldid 1348684172 category mechanical failure hidden categories articles with short description short description matches wikidata webarchive template wayback links this page was last edited on 13 april 2026 at 20 59 utc page was rendered with parsoid text is available under the creative commons attribution sharealike 4 0 license additional terms may apply by using this 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