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duhem critiqued the baconian notion of crucial experiments according to this critique an experiment in physics is not simply an observation but rather an interpretation of observations by means of a theoretical framework furthermore no matter how well one constructs one s experiment it is impossible to subject an isolated single hypothesis to an experimental test instead it is a whole interlocking group of hypotheses background assumptions and theories that is tested this thesis has come to be known as confirmation holism this inevitable holism according to duhem renders crucial experiments impossible more generally duhem was critical of newton s description of the method of physics as a straightforward deduction from facts and observations duhem s philosophy of science and faith edit in the appendix to the aim and structure entitled physics of a believer duhem draws out the implications that he sees his philosophy of science as having for those who argue that there is a conflict between physics and religion he writes metaphysical and religious doctrines are judgments touching on objective reality whereas the principles of physical theory are propositions relative to certain mathematical signs stripped of all objective existence since they do not have any common term these two sorts of judgments can neither contradict nor agree with each other p 285 nonetheless duhem argues that it is important for the theologian or metaphysician to have detailed knowledge of physical theory in order not to make illegitimate use of it in speculations duhem s philosophy of science was criticized by one of his contemporaries abel rey in part because of what rey perceived as influence on the part of duhem s catholic faith 28 although duhem was indeed a believer a sincere and fervent catholic he was eager to point out that his works in physics and chemistry should be considered on their own merits independent of his religion they were not examples of catholic science nor even colored by his catholic faith 29 30 honors and death edit duhem received an honorary doctorate from the jagiellonian university in kraków poland in 1900 on that same year he was elected as a corresponding member of the french academy of sciences he was promoted to titular non resident member in 1913 towards the end of his life duhem was recommended as a candidate for the chair of history of science at the prestigious collège de france in paris duhem however refused to be considered for the position explaining in a letter to his daughter that i am a theoretical physicist either i will teach theoretical physics at paris or else i will not go there 2 he died suddenly in 1916 at the relatively early age of 55 after suffering from an acute attack of angina while staying in a home that had belonged to his maternal grandfather in the small commune of cabrespine near the city of carcassonne in the southern department of the aude works edit books 1886 le potentiel thermodynamique et ses applications à la mécanique chimique et à l étude des phénomènes électriques paris a hermann 1888 de l aimantation par influence suivi de propositions données par la faculté paris gauthier villars et fils 1891 cours de physique mathématique et de cristallographie de la faculté des sciences de lille paris a hermann 1891 1892 leçons sur l électricité et le magnétisme paris gauthier villars et fils tome i english epub tome ii english epub tome iii english epub 1893 introduction à la mécanique chimique paris g carré 1894 sur les déformations permanentes et l hysteresis bruxelles impr de hayez 1895 les théories de la chaleur 1896 théorie thermodynamique de la viscosité du frottement et des faux équilibres chimiques paris a hermann 1897 1898 traité élémentaire de mécanique chimique fondée sur la thermodynamique paris a hermann 1897 les mélanges doubles statique chimique générale des systèmes hétérogènes 1898 faux équilibres et explosions 1902 le mixte et la combinaison chimique essai sur l évolution d une idée paris c naud 1902 les théories électriques de j clerk maxwell étude historique et critique paris a hermann 1902 thermodynamique et chimie leçons élémentaires à l usage des chimistes paris a hermann 1903 recherches sur l hydrodynamique paris gauthier villars 1905 6 les origines de la statique paris a herman tome i tome ii 1905 l évolution de la mécanique paris a hermann 1906 la théorie physique son objet sa structure paris chevalier riviére vrin 2007 1906 recherches sur l élasticité paris gauthier villars 1906 13 études sur léonard de vinci ceux qu il a lus et ceux qui l ont lu 3 vol paris a hermann première série ceux qu il a lus et ceux qui l ont lu 1906 deuxième série ceux qu il a lus et ceux qui l ont lu 1909 troisième série les précurseurs parisiens de galilée 1913 1908 josiah willard gibbs à propos de la publication de ses mémoires scientifiques paris a hermann 1908 sauver les phénomènes essai sur la notion de théorie physique de platon à galilée paris a hermann vrin 2005 1909 le mouvement absolu et le mouvement relatif paris impr librairie de montligeon english epub 1911 traité d énergétique paris gauthier villars tome i english epub tome ii english epub 1913 1959 le système du monde histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de platon à copernic tome i tome ii tome iii tome iv tome v tome vi tome vii tome viii tome ix tome x 1915 la science allemande paris a hermann articles 1908 la valeur de la théorie physique journal de mathémathiques pures et appliquées vol xix pp 7 19 1908 ce que l on disait des indes occidentales avant christophe colomb journal de mathémathiques pures et appliquées vol xix pp 402 406 1909 note thierry de chartres et nicholas de cues revues des sciences philosophiques et théologiques troisième année pp 525 531 1911 sur les petites oscillations d un corps flottant journal de mathémathiques pures et appliquées vol vii sixiéme série pp 1 84 1911 le temps selon les philosophes hellénes part ii revue de philosophie vol xix pp 5 24 128 145 1914 roger bacon et l horreur du vide in a g little ed roger bacon essays oxford at the clarendon press 1915 quelques réflexions sur la science allemande revue des deux mondes vol xxv pp 657 686 1916 l optique de malebranche revue de métaphysique et de morale vol xxiii no 1 pp 37 91 duhem s mathematics papers from numdam works in english translation edit duhem pierre 1903 thermodynamics and chemistry a non mathematical treatise for chemists and students of chemistry 1st ed new york london j wiley sons chapman hall oclc 3383130 retrieved 2011 08 31 duhem pierre 1991b originally published 1906 the aim and structure of physical theory translated by wiener philip p 2nd ed princeton princeton university press excerpts excerpt 1 excerpt 2 heavenly bodies theory physics and philosophy physical theory and experiment in herbert feigl may brodbeck ed readings in the philosophy of science new york appleton century crofts inc 1953 pp 235 252 duhem pierre 1969 to save the phenomena an essay on the idea of physical theory from plato to galileo chicago university of chicago press oclc 681213472 excerpt duhem pierre 1985 medieval cosmology theories of infinity place time void and the plurality of worlds chicago university of chicago press isbn 978 0 226 16922 4 oclc 712044683 excerpt the 12th century birth of the notion of mass which advised modern mechanics and void and movement in the void duhem pierre 1988 the physicist as artist the landscapes of pierre duhem edinburgh scottish academic press isbn 0707305349 duhem pierre 1990 logical examination of physical theory synthese vol 83 no 2 pp 183 188 duhem pierre 1990 research on the history of physical theories synthese vol 83 no 2 pp 189 200 duhem pierre 1991 german science la salle ill open court isbn 0812691245 duhem pierre 1991c the origins of statics the sources of physical theory boston studies in the philosophy of science vol 123 dordrecht springer netherlands doi 10 1007 978 94 011 3730 0 isbn 9789401137300 duhem pierre 1996 essays in the history and philosophy of science indianapolis hackett pub co isbn 978 0 87220 308 2 oclc 33968944 duhem pierre 2011 commentary on the principles of thermodynamics by pierre duhem dordrecht new york springer isbn 978 94 007 0311 7 oclc 733543752 cite book cs1 maint deprecated archival service link duhem pierre maurice marie 2015 the electric theories of j clerk maxwell boston studies in the philosophy and history of science vol 314 alan aversa trans cham springer international publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 319 18515 6 isbn 978 3 319 18515 6 retrieved 2015 07 08 duhem pierre maurice marie 2018 06 29 galileo s precursors translation of studies on leonardo da vinci vol 3 alan aversa trans doi 10 13140 rg 2 2 23235 71201 1 retrieved 2019 07 03 duhem pierre maurice marie 2018 09 09 ampère s force law a modern introduction alan aversa trans doi 10 13140 rg 2 2 31100 03206 1 retrieved 2019 07 03 epub articles physics metaphysics 1893 physics of a believer articles contributed to the 1912 catholic encyclopedia history of physics pierre de maricourt jordanus de nemore nicole oresme albert of saxony thierry of freburg jean de sax the above bibliography is not exhaustive see his complete primary sources and secondary sources at the duhem entry of the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy see also edit theory ladenness references edit jaki stanley l 1987 uneasy genius the life and work of pierre duhem dordrecht martinus nijhoff p 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 roger ariew 2022 pierre duhem stanford encyclopedia of philosophy retrieved 2025 02 15 macquorn rankine 1855 outlines of the science of energetics the edinburgh new philosophical journal vol ii pp 120 140 see hentschel 1988 on these and other parallels between duhem and mach and on their correspondence mcmullin ernan 1990 comment duhem s middle way synthese 83 3 421 430 doi 10 1007 bf00413426 s2cid 46980317 1 2 gillies donald philosophy of science in the twentieth century 1993 lakatos imre 2001 the methodology of scientific research programmes volume 1 cambridge university press p 21 isbn 0 521 28031 1 lowinger armand 1967 the methodology of pierre duhem ams press p 25 isbn 9780404040581 pierre duhem himself a distinguished physicist initiated in heroic fashion almost singlehandedly the modern study of the history of medieval science by the simple but effective expedient of reading and analyzing as many medieval scientific manuscripts as possible palter robert m 1961 preface to toward modern science vol i new york the noonday press p ix paul harry w 1972 pierre duhem science and the historian s craft journal of the history of ideas 33 pp 497 512 murdoch john e 1991 pierre duhem and the history of late medieval science and philosophy in the latin west in r imbach a maierù eds gli studi di filosofia medievale fra otto e novecento rome edizioni di estoria e letteratura pp 253 302 by his numerous publications duhem made medieval science a respectable research field and placed the late middle ages in the mainstream of scientific development he thus filled the hiatus that had existed between greek and arabic science on the one extreme and early modern science in the seventeenth century europe on the other for the first time the history of science was provided with a genuine sense of continuity grant edward 1996 the foundations of modern science in the middle ages cambridge university press p xi duhem pierre 1914 le système du monde histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de platon à copernic the system of world a history cosmological doctrines from plato to copernicus paris a hermann wallace william a 1984 prelude galileo and his sources the heritage of the collegio romano in galileo s science n j princeton university press lindberg david c westman robert s eds 27 jul 1990 duhem pierre 1905 preface les origines de la statique 1 paris a hermman p iv conceptions of the scientific revolution from bacon to butterfield reappraisals of the scientific revolution 1st ed cambridge cambridge university press p 14 isbn 978 0 521 34804 1 an ancient view attributed to plato by simplicius of cilicia on hypotheses theories and phaenomena on what scientists or more historically accurately ancient astronomers are for are supposed to do see geminus of rhodes james evans j l berggren 2006 10 reality and representations in greek astronomy hypotheses and phenomena geminos s introduction to the phenomena a translation and study of a hellenistic survey of astronomy princeton university press pp 49 51 isbn 9780691123394 wherein the oldest extant text in which the expression save the phenomena is only of the first century a d namely plutarch s on the face in the orb of the moon hence see also in greek plutarch de faciae quae in orbe lunae apparet 923a or in english at the perseus project cf duhem pierre 1969 to save the phenomena an essay on the idea of physical theory from plato to galileo chicago university of chicago press oclc 681213472 excerpt on pg 132 cf andreas osiander s ad lectorem introduction to copernicus s de revolutionibus orbium coelestium pierre duhem thinks kepler is unquestionably the strongest and most illustrious representative of that tradition i e the tradition of realism that physical theories offer explanations in addition to just saving the phenomena summa theologica i q 32 a 1 ad 2 duhem pierre maurice marie 1991 the aim and structure of physical theory 9932 ed princeton princeton university press isbn 978 0691025247 cady walter g 1946 piezoelectricity new york ny usa mcgraw hill p 245 massey 2011 sec 1 1 2 3 duhem pierre 1991 la théorie physique son objet et sa structure the aim and structure of physical theory philip p wiener foreword jules vuillemin introduction princeton university press isbn 978 0 691 02524 7 ol 7756708m lakatos imre paul feyerabend matteo motterlini 1999 for and against method including lakatos s lectures on scientific method and the lakatos feyerabend correspondence university of chicago press pp 45 49 isbn 978 0 226 46774 0 lakatos imre john worrall gregory currie 1980 5 newton s effect on scientific standards the methodology of scientific research programmes cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 28031 0 lakatos imre john worrall gregory currie 1978 5 the method of analysis synthesis mathematics science and epistemology cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 21769 9 page 2018 p 5 kragh 2008 duhem 1991b whatever i have said of the method by which physics proceeds or of the nature and scope that we must attribute to the theories it constructs does not in any way prejudice either the metaphysical doctrines or the religious beliefs of anyone who accepts my words the believer and the nonbeliever may both work in common accord for the progress of physical science such as i have tried to define it in itself and by its essence any principle of theoretical physics has no part to play in metaphysical or theological discussions sources edit dijksterhuis e j 1959 the origins of classical mechanics from ar...