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opposed papal claims 77 gradually forced to give up secular power to the increasingly assertive european nation states the popes focused on spiritual issues 10 in 1870 the first vatican council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals 10 later the same year victor emmanuel ii of italy seized rome from the pope s control and substantially completed the unification of italy 10 in 1929 the lateran treaty between the kingdom of italy and the holy see established vatican city as an independent city state guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule 10 in 1950 pope pius xii defined the assumption of mary as dogma the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared the primacy of st peter the controversial doctrinal basis of the pope s authority continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate protestants from rome early christian mentions see also history of papal primacy church fathers the writings of several early church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of rome providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early christian era 78 these sources attest to the acknowledgement of the bishop of rome as an influential figure within the church with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to rome s teachings and decisions such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform catholic theology and practice 79 80 in his letters cyprian of carthage c 210 258 ad recognized the bishop of rome as the successor of st peter in his letter 55 c 251 ad which is addressed to pope cornelius 81 82 and affirmed his unique authority in the early christian church 83 cornelius the bishop of rome was made bishop by the choice of god and of his christ by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy by the votes of the people who were present and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men and he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when the position of fabian that is to say the position of peter and the office of the bishop s chair was vacant but the position once has been filled by the will of god and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all if anyone wants to be made bishop after that it has to be done outside the church if a man does not uphold the unity of the church s unity it is not possible for him to have the church s ordination cyprian of carthage letter 55 8 4 irenaeus of lyons c 130 c 202 ad a prominent christian theologian of the second century provided a list of early popes in his work against heresies iii the list covers the period from saint peter to pope eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 ad 84 85 the blessed apostles peter and paul then having founded and built up the church in rome committed into the hands of linus the office of the episcopate of this linus paul makes mention in the epistles to timothy to him succeeded anacletus and after him in the third place from the apostles clement was allotted the bishopric to this clement there succeeded eviristus alexander followed evaristus then sixth from the apostles sixtus was appointed after him telephorus who was gloriously martyred then hyginus after him pius then after him anicetus soter having succeeded anicetus eleutherius does now in the twelfth place from the apostles hold the inheritance of the episcopate irenaeus of lyons against heresies iii chapter 3 2 ignatius of antioch died c 108 140 ad wrote in his epistle to the romans that the church in rome is the church that presides over love 86 87 the church which is beloved and enlightened by the will of him that wills all things which are according to the love of jesus christ our god which also presides in the place of the region of the romans worthy of god worthy of honour worthy of the highest happiness worthy of praise worthy of obtaining her every desire worthy of being deemed holy and which presides over love is named from christ and from the father which i also salute in the name of jesus christ the son of the father to those who are united both according to the flesh and spirit to every one of his commandments ignatius of antioch epistle to romans augustine of hippo 354 430 in his letter 53 wrote a list of 38 popes from saint peter to siricius the order of this list differs from the lists of irenaeus and the annuario pontificio augustine s list claims that linus was succeeded by clement and clement was succeeded by anacletus as in the list of eusebius while the other two lists switch the positions of clement and anacletus 88 for if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account with how much more certainty and benefit to the church do we reckon back till we reach peter himself to whom as bearing in a figure the whole church the lord said upon this rock will i build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it matthew 16 18 the successor of peter was linus and his successors in unbroken continuity were these clement anacletus evaristus augustine of hippo letter 53 paragraph 2 other early christian mentions eusebius c 260 265 339 mentions linus as saint peter s successor and clement as the third bishop of rome in his book church history as recorded by eusebius clement worked with saint paul as his co laborer 89 as to the rest of his followers paul testifies that crescens was sent to gaul but linus whom he mentions in the second epistle to timothy as his companion at rome was peter s successor in the episcopate of the church there as has already been shown clement also who was appointed third bishop of the church at rome was as paul testifies his co laborer and fellow soldier eusebius of caesarea church history book iii chapter 4 9 10 tertullian c 155 c 220 ad wrote in his work the prescription against heretics about the authority of the church in rome in this work tertullian said that the church in rome has the authority of the apostles because of its apostolic foundation 90 since moreover you are close upon italy you have rome from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority of apostles themselves how happy is its church on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood where peter endures a passion like his lord s where paul wins his crown in a death like john s where the apostle john was first plunged unhurt into boiling oil and thence remitted to his island exile tertullian the prescription against heretics chapter 32 according to the same book clement of rome was ordained by saint peter as the bishop of rome for this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers as the church of smyrna which records that polycarp was placed therein by john as also the church of rome which makes clement to have been ordained in like manner by peter tertullian prescription against heretics chapter 32 optatus the bishop of milevis in numidia today s algeria and a contemporary of the donatist schism presents a detailed analysis of the origins beliefs and practices of the donatists as well as the events and debates surrounding the schism in his book the schism of the donatists 367 a d in the book optatus wrote about the position of the bishop of rome in maintaining the unity of the church 91 92 you cannot deny that you are aware that in the city of rome the episcopal chair was given first to peter the chair in which peter sat the same who was head that is why he is also called cephas rock of all the apostles the one chair in which unity is maintained by all optatus the schism of the donatists 2 2 saint peter and the origin of the papal office see also primacy of simon peter the catholic church teaches that within the christian community the bishops as a body succeeded the apostles as a body apostolic succession and the bishop of rome succeeded saint peter 4 scriptural texts proposed in support of peter s special position in relation to the church include matthew 16 i tell you you are peter and on this rock i will build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it i will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven 93 luke 22 simon simon behold satan demanded to have you that he might sift you like wheat but i have prayed for you that your faith may not fail and when you have turned again strengthen your brothers 94 john 21 feed my sheep 95 the symbolic keys in the papal coats of arms are a reference to the phrase the keys of the kingdom of heaven in the first of these texts some protestant writers have maintained that the rock that jesus speaks of in this text is jesus himself or the faith expressed by peter 96 97 98 99 100 101 this idea is undermined by the biblical usage of cephas which is the masculine form of rock in aramaic to describe peter 102 103 104 the encyclopædia britannica comments that the consensus of the great majority of scholars today is that the most obvious and traditional understanding should be construed namely that rock refers to the person of peter 105 new eliakim according to the catholic church the pope is also the new eliakim a figure in the old testament of the bible who directed the affairs of the royal court managed the palace staff and handled state affairs isaiah also describes him as having the key to the house of david which symbolizes his authority and power 106 a fresco of eliakim in the sistine chapel vatican city both matthew 16 18 19 and isaiah 22 22 show similarities between eliakim and peter getting keys which symbolize power eliakim gets the power to close and open while peter gets the power to bind and loose according to the book of isaiah eliakim receives the keys and power to close and open i will place the key of the house of david on his shoulder what he opens no one will shut what he shuts no one will open 107 isaiah 22 22 according to the book of matthew peter also gets keys and power to bind and loose i will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven 108 matthew 16 19 in the books of isaiah 22 3 and matthew 16 18 both eliakim and peter are compared to an object eliakim to a peg a structure that is driven into a wall or other structure to provide support and stability while peter to a rock and i will fasten him like a peg in a secure place and he will become a throne of honor to his father s house 109 isaiah 22 23 in matthew 16 18 peter was compared to a rock and i tell you you are peter and on this rock i will build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it 93 matthew 16 18 election death and resignation election main article papal conclave the delivery of the keys by pietro perugino 1481 the pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near rome in 1059 the electorate was restricted to the cardinals of the holy roman church and the individual votes of all cardinal electors were made equal in 1179 the electors are now limited to those cardinals who have not reached the age of 80 on the day before the death or resignation of a pope 110 the pope does not need to be a cardinal elector nor indeed even a cardinal since the pope is the bishop of rome only one who can be ordained a bishop can be elected which means that any male baptized catholic is eligible the last to be elected when not yet a bishop was gregory xvi in 1831 the last to be elected when not even a priest was leo x in 1513 and the last to be elected when not a cardinal was urban vi in 1378 111 if someone who is not a bishop is elected he must be given episcopal ordination before the election is announced to the people 112 the second council of lyon was convened on 7 may 1274 to regulate the election of the pope it was decreed at this council that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope s death and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected this was prompted by the three year sede vacante following the death of clement iv in 1268 by the mid 16th century the electoral process had evolved into its present form allowing for variation in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors 113 traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation by selection by committee or by plenary vote acclamation was the simplest procedure consisting entirely of a voice vote the 1417 conclave in konstanz where pope martin v was elected since 1878 the election of the pope has taken place in the sistine chapel in a sequestered meeting called a conclave so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in cum clave i e with key until they elect a new pope three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors by reason of illness three are chosen by lot to count the votes and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes the ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for one whom under god i think ought to be elected before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar for the 2005 papal conclave a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate the plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice making it difficult for electors to insert multiple ballots before being read the ballots are counted while still folded if the number of ballots does not match the number of electors the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held otherwise each ballot is read aloud by the presiding cardinal who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty balloting continues until someone is elected by a two thirds majority with the promulgation of universi dominici gregis in 1996 a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed but this was revoked by pope benedict xvi by motu proprio in 2007 the formal declaration of habemus papam after the election of pope martin v the dean of the college of cardinals then asks two solemn questions of the man who has been elected first he asks do you freely accept your election as supreme pontiff if the pope elect replies with the word accepto his reign begins at that instant in practice any cardinal who intends not to accept will explicitly state this before he receives a sufficient number of votes to become pope 114 115 the dean asks next by what name shall you be called the new pope announces the regnal name he has chosen if the dean of the college himself is elected pope as was the case in the 2005 conclave with...