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he titan ii s hypergolic propellants would burn immediately on contact a titan ii booster explosion had a smaller blast effect and flame than on the cryogenically fueled atlas and saturn ejection seats were sufficient to separate the astronauts from a malfunctioning launch vehicle at higher altitudes where the ejection seats could not be used the astronauts would return to earth inside the spacecraft which would separate from the launch vehicle 13 the main proponent of using ejection seats was chamberlin who had never liked the mercury escape tower and wished to use a simpler alternative that would also reduce weight he reviewed several films of atlas and titan ii icbm failures which he used to estimate the approximate size of a fireball produced by an exploding launch vehicle and from this he gauged that the titan ii would produce a much smaller explosion thus the spacecraft could get away with ejection seats unablated gemini heat shield ablated gemini heat shield maxime faget the designer of the mercury les was on the other hand less than enthusiastic about this setup aside from the possibility of the ejection seats seriously injuring the astronauts they would also only be usable for about 40 seconds after liftoff by which point the booster would be attaining mach 1 speed and ejection would no longer be possible he was also concerned about the astronauts being launched through the titan s exhaust plume if they ejected in flight and later added the best thing about gemini was that they never had to make an escape 14 the gemini ejection system was never tested with the gemini cabin pressurized with pure oxygen as it was prior to launch in january 1967 the fatal apollo 1 fire demonstrated that pressurizing a spacecraft with pure oxygen created an extremely dangerous fire hazard 15 in a 1997 oral history astronaut thomas p stafford commented on the gemini 6 launch abort in december 1965 when he and command pilot wally schirra nearly ejected from the spacecraft so it turns out what we would have seen had we had to do that would have been two roman candles going out because we were 15 or 16 psi pure oxygen soaking in that for an hour and a half you remember the tragic fire we had at the cape jesus with that fire going off and that it would have burned the suits everything was soaked in oxygen so thank god that was another thing nasa never tested it under the conditions that they would have had if they would have had to eject they did have some tests at china lake where they had a simulated mock up of gemini capsule but what they did is fill it full of nitrogen they didn t have it filled full of oxygen in the sled test they had 16 gemini was the first astronaut carrying spacecraft to include an onboard computer the gemini guidance computer to facilitate management and control of mission maneuvers this computer sometimes called the gemini spacecraft on board computer obc was very similar to the saturn launch vehicle digital computer the gemini guidance computer weighed 58 98 pounds 26 75 kg its core memory had 4096 addresses each containing a 39 bit word composed of three 13 bit syllables all numeric data was 26 bit two s complement integers sometimes used as fixed point numbers either stored in the first two syllables of a word or in the accumulator instructions always with a 4 bit opcode and 9 bits of operand could go in any syllable 17 18 19 20 unlike mercury gemini used in flight radar and an artificial horizon similar to those used in the aviation industry 17 like mercury gemini used a joystick to give the astronauts manual control of yaw pitch and roll gemini added control of the spacecraft s translation forward backward up down and sideways with a pair of t shaped handles one for each crew member translation control enabled rendezvous and docking and crew control of the flight path the same controller types were also used in the apollo spacecraft 9 gemini paraglider during tests at edwards air force base in august 1964 the original intention for gemini was to land on solid ground instead of at sea using a rogallo wing rather than a parachute with the crew seated upright controlling the forward motion of the craft to facilitate this the airfoil did not attach just to the nose of the craft but to an additional attachment point for balance near the heat shield this cord was covered by a strip of metal which ran between the twin hatches 21 this design was ultimately dropped and parachutes were used to make a sea landing as in mercury the capsule was suspended at an angle closer to horizontal so that a side of the heat shield contacted the water first this eliminated the need for the landing bag cushion used in the mercury capsule adapter module edit the adapter module in turn was separated into a retro module and an equipment module retro module edit the retro module contained four solid fuel te m 385 star 13 e retrorockets each spherical in shape except for its rocket nozzle which were structurally attached to two beams that reached across the diameter of the retro module crossing at right angles in the center 22 re entry began with the retrorockets firing one at a time abort procedures at certain periods during lift off would cause them to fire at the same time thrusting the descent module away from the titan rocket equipment module edit gemini was equipped with an orbit attitude and maneuvering system oams containing sixteen thrusters for translation control in all three perpendicular axes forward backward left right up down in addition to attitude control pitch yaw and roll angle orientation as in mercury translation control allowed changing orbital inclination and altitude necessary to perform space rendezvous with other craft and docking with the agena target vehicle atv with its own rocket engine which could be used to perform greater orbit changes early short duration missions had their electrical power supplied by batteries later endurance missions used the first fuel cells in crewed spacecraft gemini was in some regards more advanced than apollo because the latter program began almost a year earlier it became known as a pilot s spacecraft due to its assortment of jet fighter like features in no small part due to gus grissom s influence over the design and it was at this point where the us manned space program clearly began showing its superiority over that of the soviet union with long duration flight rendezvous and extravehicular capability note 4 the soviet union during this period was developing the soyuz spacecraft intended to take cosmonauts to the moon but political and technical problems began to get in the way leading to the ultimate end of their crewed lunar program launch vehicle edit main article titan ii glv the titan ii debuted in 1962 as the air force s second generation icbm to replace the atlas by using hypergolic fuels it could be stored longer and be easily readied for launch in addition to being a simpler design with fewer components the only caveat was the propellant mix nitrogen tetroxide and hydrazine were extremely toxic compared to the atlas liquid oxygen rp 1 however the titan had considerable difficulty being man rated due to early problems with pogo oscillation the launch vehicle used a radio guidance system that was unique to launches from cape kennedy astronauts edit astronauts white and mcdivitt inside the gemini 4 spacecraft 1965 gemini 8 prime crew and other astronauts at prelaunch breakfast 1966 deke slayton as director of flight crew operations had primary responsibility for assigning crews for the gemini program each flight had a primary crew and backup crew and the backup crew would rotate to primary crew status three flights later slayton intended for first choice of mission commands to be given to the four remaining active astronauts of the mercury seven alan shepard grissom cooper and schirra john glenn had retired from nasa in january 1964 and scott carpenter who was blamed by some in nasa management for the problematic reentry of aurora 7 was on leave to participate in the navy s sealab project and was grounded from flight in july 1964 due to an arm injury sustained in a motorbike accident slayton himself continued to be grounded due to a heart problem as for shepard during training on the gemini project his inner ear deficiency due to menière s disease would effectively ground him as well and keep him removed from the flight roster until he underwent corrective surgery and would not fly on gemini at all but return to flight with apollo 14 as commander titles used for the left hand command and right hand pilot seat crew positions were taken from the u s air force pilot ratings command pilot and pilot sixteen astronauts flew on 10 crewed gemini missions yuri gagarin shakes hand with gemini 4 astronauts 1965 group astronaut service mission prime crew position mission backup crew position astronaut group 1 gordon cooper usaf gemini 5 command pilot gemini 12 command pilot virgil gus grissom gemini 3 command pilot gemini 6a command pilot walter m schirra usn gemini 6a command pilot gemini 3 command pilot astronaut group 2 neil armstrong civilian note 5 gemini 8 command pilot gemini 5 command pilot gemini 11 command pilot frank borman usaf gemini 7 command pilot gemini 4 command pilot charles pete conrad usn gemini 5 pilot gemini 8 command pilot gemini 11 command pilot jim lovell usn gemini 7 pilot gemini 4 pilot gemini 12 command pilot gemini 9a command pilot james mcdivitt usaf gemini 4 command pilot n a thomas p stafford gemini 6a pilot gemini 3 pilot note 6 gemini 9a command pilot ed white gemini 4 pilot gemini 7 command pilot john young usn gemini 3 pilot gemini 6a pilot gemini 10 command pilot astronaut group 3 edwin buzz aldrin usaf gemini 12 pilot gemini 9a pilot eugene cernan usn gemini 9a pilot gemini 12 pilot michael collins usaf gemini 10 pilot gemini 7 pilot richard f gordon usn gemini 11 pilot gemini 8 pilot david scott usaf gemini 8 pilot n a astronauts selected but did not fly astronaut group 1 alan shepard usn gemini 3 command pilot note 7 n a astronaut group 2 elliot see civilian note 8 gemini 9 command pilot note 9 gemini 5 pilot astronaut group 3 william anders usaf n a gemini 11 pilot charles bassett gemini 9 pilot note 9 n a alan bean usn n a gemini 10 command pilot clifton williams usmc n a gemini 10 pilot crew selection edit in late 1963 slayton selected shepard and stafford for gemini 3 mcdivitt and white for gemini 4 and schirra and young for gemini 5 which was to be the first agena rendezvous mission the backup crew for gemini 3 was grissom and borman who were also slated for gemini 6 to be the first long duration mission finally conrad and lovell were assigned as the backup crew for gemini 4 delays in the production of the agena target vehicle caused the first rearrangement of the crew rotation the schirra and young mission was bumped to gemini 6 and they became the backup crew for shepard and stafford grissom and borman then had their long duration mission assigned to gemini 5 the second rearrangement occurred when shepard developed ménière s disease an inner ear problem grissom was then moved to command gemini 3 slayton felt that young was a better personality match with grissom and switched stafford and young finally slayton tapped cooper to command the long duration gemini 5 again for reasons of compatibility he moved conrad from backup commander of gemini 4 to pilot of gemini 5 and borman to backup command of gemini 4 finally he assigned armstrong and elliot see to be the backup crew for gemini 5 the third rearrangement of crew assignment occurred when slayton felt that see wasn t up to the physical demands of eva on gemini 8 he reassigned see to be the prime commander of gemini 9 and put scott as pilot of gemini 8 and charles bassett as the pilot of gemini 9 the fourth and final rearrangement of the gemini crew assignment occurred after the deaths of see and bassett when their trainer jet crashed coincidentally into a mcdonnell building which held their gemini 9 capsule in st louis the backup crew of stafford and cernan was then moved up to the new prime crew of gemini 9a lovell and aldrin were moved from being the backup crew of gemini 10 to be the backup crew of gemini 9 this cleared the way through the crew rotation for lovell and aldrin to become the prime crew of gemini 12 along with the deaths of grissom white and roger chaffee in the fire of apollo 1 this final arrangement helped determine the makeup of the first seven apollo crews and who would be in position for a chance to be the first to walk on the moon missions edit gemini mission control in houston during gemini 5 in april 1964 and january 1965 two gemini missions were flown without crews to test systems and the heat shield these were followed by 10 flights with crews in 1965 and 1966 all were launched by titan ii launch vehicles some highlights from the gemini program gemini 3 grissom and young was the first crewed gemini mission first multi crewed us mission and the first crewed spacecraft to use thrusters to change its orbit on gemini 4 ed white became the first american to make an extravehicular activity eva or spacewalk on june 3 1965 gemini 5 august 21 29 1965 demonstrated the 8 day endurance necessary for an apollo lunar mission with the first use of fuel cells to generate its electrical power gemini 6a accomplished the first space rendezvous with its sister craft gemini 7 in december 1965 with gemini 7 setting a 14 day endurance record for its flight gemini 8 achieved the first space docking with an uncrewed agena target vehicle gemini 10 established that radiation at high altitude was not a problem further demonstrated the ability to rendezvous with a passive object and was the first gemini mission to fire the agena s own rocket michael collins would be the first person to meet another spacecraft in orbit during his second successful eva gemini 11 first direct ascent first orbit rendezvous with an agena target vehicle docking with it 1 hour 34 minutes after launch set a crewed earth orbital altitude record of 739 2 nautical miles 1 369 0 km in september 1966 using the agena target vehicle s propulsion system this record was broken in september 2024 by the polaris dawn mission and again in april 2026 by the artemis ii mission on gemini 12 edwin buzz aldrin became the first space traveler to prove that useful work eva could be done outside a spacecraft without life threatening exhaustion due to newly implemented footholds handholds and scheduled rest periods rendezvous in orbit is not a straightforward maneuver should a spacecraft increase its speed to catch up with another the result is that it goes into a higher and slower orbit and the distance thereby increases the right procedure is to go to a lower orbit first which increases relative speed and then approach the target spacecraft from below and decrease orbital speed to meet it 23 to practice these maneuvers s...