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tic of the dynasty s use of egyptian religion to legitimize their rule and strengthen their control the cult of serapis included the worship of the new ptolemaic line of pharaohs the newly established hellenistic capital of alexandria supplanted memphis as the preeminent religious city ptolemy i also promoted the cult of the deified alexander who became the state god of the ptolemaic kingdom many rulers also promoted individual cults of personality including celebrations at egyptian temples because the monarchy remained staunchly hellenistic despite otherwise co opting egyptian faith traditions religion during this period was highly syncretic the wife of ptolemy ii arsinoe ii was often depicted in the form of the greek goddess aphrodite but she wore the crown of lower egypt with ram s horns ostrich feathers and other traditional egyptian indicators of royalty and or deification she wore the vulture headdress only on the religious portion of a relief cleopatra vii the last of the ptolemaic line was often depicted with characteristics of the goddess isis she usually had either a small throne as her headdress or the more traditional sun disk between two horns 62 reflecting greek preferences the traditional table for offerings disappeared from reliefs during the ptolemaic period while male gods were no longer portrayed with tails so as to make them more human like in accordance with the hellenistic tradition bronze allegorical group of a ptolemy identifiable by his diadem overcoming an adversary in hellenistic style c early 2nd century bc walters art museum nevertheless the ptolemies remained generally supportive of the egyptian religion which always remained key to their legitimacy egyptian priests and other religious authorities enjoyed royal patronage and support more or less retaining their historical privileged status temples remained the focal point of social economic and cultural life the first three reigns of the dynasty were characterized by rigorous temple building including the completion of projects left over from the previous dynasty many older or neglected structures were restored or enhanced 63 the ptolemies generally adhered to traditional architectural styles and motifs in many respects the egyptian religion thrived temples became centers of learning and literature in the traditional egyptian style 63 the worship of isis and horus became more popular as did the practice of offering animal mummies memphis while no longer the center of power became the second city after alexandria and enjoyed considerable influence its high priests of ptah an ancient egyptian creator god held considerable sway among the priesthood and even with the ptolemaic kings saqqara the city s necropolis was a leading center of worship of apis bull which had become integrated into the national mythos the ptolemies also lavished attention on hermopolis the cult center of thoth building a hellenistic style temple in his honor thebes continued to be a major religious center and home to a powerful priesthood it also enjoyed royal development namely of the karnak complex devoted to the osiris and khonsu the city s temples and communities prosperous while a new ptolemaic style of cemeteries were built 63 a common stele that appears during the ptolemaic dynasty is the cippus a type of religious object produced for the purpose of protecting individuals these magical stelae were made of various materials such as limestone chlorite schist and metagreywacke and were connected with matters of health and safety horus on the crocodiles cippi during the ptolemaic period generally featured the child form of the egyptian god horus horpakhered or harpocrates this portrayal refers to the myth of horus triumphing over dangerous animals in the marshes of khemmis with magic power also known as akhmim 64 65 society edit egyptian faience torso of a king for an applique on wood characteristic indian etched carnelian bead found in ptolemaic period excavations at saft el henna this is a marker of trade relations with india petrie museum ptolemaic egypt was highly stratified in terms of both class and language more than any previous foreign rulers the ptolemies retained or co opted many aspects of the egyptian social order using egyptian religion traditions and political structures to increase their own power and wealth as before peasant farmers remained the vast majority of the population while agricultural land and produce were owned directly by the state temple or noble family that owned the land macedonians and other greeks now formed the new upper classes replacing the old native aristocracy a complex state bureaucracy was established to manage and extract egypt s vast wealth for the benefit of the ptolemies and the landed gentry greeks held virtually all the political and economic power while native egyptians generally occupied only the lower posts over time egyptians who spoke greek were able to advance further and many individuals identified as greek were of egyptian descent eventually a bilingual and bicultural social class emerged in ptolemaic egypt 66 priests and other religious officials remained overwhelmingly egyptian and continued to enjoy royal patronage and social prestige as the ptolemies relied on the egyptian faith to legitimize their rule and placate the populace although egypt was a prosperous kingdom with the ptolemies lavishing patronage through religious monuments and public works the native population enjoyed few benefits wealth and power remained overwhelmingly in the hands of greeks subsequently uprisings and social unrest were frequent especially by the early third century bc egyptian nationalism reached a peak in the reign of ptolemy iv philopator 221 205 bc when a succession of native self proclaimed pharaoh gained control over one district this was only curtailed nineteen years later when ptolemy v epiphanes 205 181 bc succeeded in subduing them though underlying grievances were never extinguished and riots erupted again later in the dynasty science edit ptolemaic egypt was a major center of scientific and intellectual activity from its founding ptolemy i soter 323 280 bc established the museion and the library of alexandria to encourage the development of the arts and sciences and to attract leading thinkers from across the known world he mandated collect ion all books in the inhabited world and personally corresponded with leaders of other nations requesting that they furnish works by poets and prose writers rhetoricians and sophists doctors and soothsayers historians and all the others too 67 agents were subsequently dispatched to foreign cities to acquire such works without regard to cost 68 economy edit egypt s abundant agricultural resources deep tradition of relatively stable centralised government and geographic location made it an important trade axis between the mediterranean near east and horn of africa for at least a millennium 69 building upon this strong foundation the ptolemies profoundly reshaped the egyptian economy through the promotion of greek settlement and investment the founding of alexandria as a commercial hub and the integration of hellenistic institutions 70 the dynasty sought to maximize resource extraction by tightly regulating virtually all economic activity through a complex and hierarchical bureaucracy nominally directed by the crown 70 ptolemaic rule saw unparalleled growth in land cultivation trade volume and tax revenue making egypt the wealthiest hellenistic kingdoms and a leading economic power 71 70 administration edit the ptolemaic economy was a mix of direct royal control and private enterprise characterized by systematic monetization a sophisticated banking system a complex regulatory and administrative apparatus and policies focused on agricultural production and trade particularly through the port of alexandria the ptolemies owned a significant portion of farmland and temple property which was taxed heavily providing the crown with a major source of revenue royal control also extended to the manufacture and marketing of almost all important products particularly papyrus olive oil linen and beer with a concerted focus on foreign exports the ptolemaic government was designed to maximize resource extraction and exploitation across all economic sectors down to the local level in theory if not always in practice the monarch had full command of the economy exercised through layers of bureaucracy within the royal court was the chief finance minister chief accountant and a handful of ministers responsible for records correspondences and decrees below them were various subordinate officials including strategoi who each governed one of the nomes or territorial divisions oikonomos who managed various domestic and economic affairs of the nome and komarches who served as chief administrators of each village within the nome 72 agriculture edit egyptian wealth had always derived primarily from its highly productive land the ptolemies increased cultivation through ambitious irrigation and land reclamation projects large canal networks were built to irrigate land that was previously beyond the reach of the nile while the marshy faiyum was drained to create a major agricultural zone 73 the ptolemies also introduced crops such as durum wheat which was more lucrative in foreign markets and intensified production of goods like wool wine production increased dramatically during the ptolemaic period as the new greek ruling class greatly preferred wine to the beer traditionally produced in egypt vines from regions like crete were planted in egypt in an attempt to produce greek wines 74 throughout the ptolemaic period egypt became a major producer of grain wine flax cotton papyrus and a wide range of fruits vegetables and spices these goods not only brought greater revenue through foreign trade but influenced domestic consumption and culinary traditions monetary policy edit main article ptolemaic coinage among the most fundamental and radical changes introduced by the ptolemies was the systematic monetization of the economy egypt had never developed a system of minted coinage for commerce relying instead on in kind exchanges or barter at fixed rates beginning with ptolemy i soter the kingdom minted egyptian coins that were roughly equivalent to the standard greek denominations of the chalkous obol and drachma throughout the ptolemaic period egypt would produce an extensive series of coinage in gold silver and bronze which also served to project the literal image and authority of a given monarch nevertheless in kind transactions remained widespread even among greeks and were recorded by receipts in greek or demotic egyptian example of a large ptolemaic bronze coin minted during the reign of ptolemy v the ptolemaic kingdom operated a closed monetary system that allowed only royal coinage to circulate within egypt foreign merchants seeking to purchase goods domestically were required to exchange their currencies for egyptian counterparts at a one to one rate the ptolemies maintained a sophisticated banking system that combined direct royal control with private enterprise to govern both private financial transactions and taxation the adoption of standardized coinage facilitated both domestic and foreign commerce and resulted in a significant increase in trade volume which persisted well into the roman period 75 reflecting the kingdom s highly centralised administrative framework rulers periodically reformed monetary policy in response to domestic and foreign developments around 260 bc new silver denominations were added to existing ones in circulation while heavier bronze coins were minted to partially replace silver in large transactions by the 230s bc bronze had effectively replaced silver in daily transactions due largely to the domestic scarcity of silver relative to bronze and gold this development was highly unusual in the hellenistic world which generally favored silver as the standard medium for coinage under ptolemy iv 221 204 bc the weight of bronze coins was dramatically reduced essentially halving the spending power of rural labourers who were paid in bronze in response ptolemy v 205 180 bc completely overhauled the monetary system in 197 bc and introduced new bronze denominations military edit the military of ptolemaic egypt is considered to have been one of the best of the hellenistic period benefiting from the kingdom s vast resources and its ability to adapt to changing circumstances 76 the ptolemaic military initially served a defensive purpose primarily against competing diadochi claimants and rival hellenistic states like the seleucid empire by the reign of ptolemy iii 246 to 222 bc its role was more imperialistic helping extend ptolemaic control or influence over cyrenaica coele syria and cyprus as well as over cities in anatolia southern thrace the aegean islands and crete the military expanded and secured these territories while continuing its primary function of protecting egypt its main garrisons were in alexandria pelusium in the delta and elephantine in upper egypt the ptolemies also relied on the military to assert and maintain their control over egypt often by virtue of their presence soldiers served in several units of the royal guard and were mobilized against uprisings and dynastic usurpers both of which became increasingly common members of the army such as the machimoi low ranking native soldiers were sometimes recruited as guards for officials or even to help enforce tax collection 77 army edit main article ptolemaic army hellenistic soldiers in tunic 100 bc detail of the nile mosaic of palestrina the ptolemies maintained a standing army throughout their reign made up of both professional soldiers including mercenaries and recruits from the very beginning the ptolemaic army demonstrated considerable resourcefulness and adaptability in his fight for control over egypt ptolemy i had relied on a combination of imported greek troops mercenaries native egyptians and even prisoners of war 76 the army was characterized by its diversity and maintained records of its troops national origins or patris 78 in addition to egypt itself soldiers were recruited from macedonia cyrenaica modern libya mainland greece the aegean asia minor and thrace overseas territories were often garrisoned with local soldiers 79 by the second and first centuries bc increasing warfare and expansion coupled with reduced greek immigration led to increasing reliance on native egyptians however greeks retained the higher ranks of royal guards officers and generals 76 though present in the military from its founding native troops were sometimes looked down upon and distrusted due to their reputation for disloyalty and tendency to aid local revolts 80 however they were well regarded as fighters and beginning with the reforms of ptolemy v in the early third century bc they appeared more frequently as officers and cava...