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es farms and properties were seized 223 members of both zanla and zipra had deserted their positions and engaged in banditry 218 in matabeleland zipra deserters who came to be known as dissenters engaged in robbery holding up buses and attacking farmhouses creating an environment of growing lawlessness 224 these dissidents received support from south africa through its operation mute by which it hoped to further destabilise zimbabwe 225 the government often conflated zipra with the dissenters 226 although nkomo denounced the dissidents and their south african supporters 227 mugabe authorised the police and army to crack down on the matabeleland dissenters declaring that state officers would be granted legal immunity for any extra legal actions they may perform while doing so 227 during 1982 he had established the 5th brigade a zimbabwean army brigade trained by the north koreans membership was drawn largely from shona speaking zanla soldiers and were answerable directly to mugabe 228 in january 1983 the 5th brigade were deployed in the region overseeing a campaign of beatings arson public executions and massacres of those accused of being sympathetic to the dissidents 229 the scale of the violence was greater than that witnessed in the rhodesian war 230 interrogation centres were established where people were tortured 231 mugabe acknowledged that civilians would be persecuted in the violence claiming that we can t tell who is a dissident and who is not 232 the ensuing events became known as the gukurahundi a shona word meaning wind that sweeps away the chaff before the rains 233 the gukurahundi took place in zimbabwe s western provinces of matabeleland highlighted in 1984 the gukurahundi spread to matabeleland south an area then in its third year of drought the 5th brigade closed all stores halted all deliveries and imposed a curfew exacerbating starvation for a period of two months 234 the bishop of bulawayo accused mugabe of overseeing a project of systematic starvation 231 when a catholic delegation provided mugabe with a dossier listing atrocities perpetrated by the 5th brigade mugabe refuted all its allegations and accused the clergy of being disloyal to zimbabwe 235 he had the catholic commission for justice and peace in zimbabwe suppressed 236 in 1985 an amnesty international report on the gukurahundi was dismissed by mugabe as a heap of lies 237 over the course of four years approximately 10 000 civilians had been killed and many others had been beaten and tortured 238 genocide watch later estimated that approximately 20 000 had been killed 239 and classified the events as genocide 240 margaret thatcher s uk government was aware of the killings but remained silent on the matter cautious not to anger mugabe and threaten the safety of white zimbabweans 241 the united states also did not raise strong objections with president ronald reagan welcoming mugabe to the white house in september 1983 242 in october 1983 mugabe attended the commonwealth heads of government meeting in new delhi where no participating states mentioned the gukurahundi 242 in 2000 mugabe acknowledged that the mass killings had happened stating that it was an act of madness it was wrong and both sides were to blame 243 his biographer martin meredith argued that mugabe and his zanu pf were solely to blame for the massacres 243 various mugabe biographers have seen the gukurahundi as a deliberate attempt to eliminate zapu and its support base to advance his desire for a zanu pf one party state 244 there was further violence in the build up to the 1985 election with zapu supporters facing harassment from zanu pf youth league brigades 245 despite this intimidation zapu won all 15 of the parliamentary seats in matabeleland 245 mugabe then appointed enos nkala as the new police minister nkala subsequently detained over 100 zapu officials including five of its mps and the mayor of bulawayo banned the party from holding rallies or meetings closed all of their offices and dissolved all of the district councils that they controlled 246 to avoid further violence in december 1987 nkomo signed a unity accord in which zapu was officially disbanded and its leadership merged into zanu pf 247 the merger between the two parties left zanu pf with 99 of the 100 seats in parliament 248 and established zimbabwe as a de facto one party state 242 president of zimbabwe edit constitutional and economic reform 1987 1995 edit in late 1987 zimbabwe s parliament amended the constitution 249 on 30 december it declared mugabe to be executive president a new position that combined the roles of head of state head of government and commander in chief of the armed forces 250 this position gave him the power to dissolve parliament declare martial law and run for an unlimited number of terms 251 according to meredith mugabe now had a virtual stranglehold on government machinery and unlimited opportunities to exercise patronage 251 the constitutional amendments also abolished the twenty parliamentary seats reserved for white representatives 252 and left parliament less relevant and independent 253 in the build up to the 1990 election parliamentary reforms increased the number of seats to 120 of these twenty were to be appointed by the president and ten by the council of chiefs 254 this measure made it more difficult for any opposition to mugabe to gain a parliamentary majority 255 the main opposition party in that election was the zimbabwe unity movement zum launched in april 1989 by tekere 256 although a longstanding friend of mugabe tekere accused him of betraying the revolution and establishing a dictatorship 257 zanu pf propaganda made threats against those considering voting zum in the election one television advert featured images of a car crash with the statement this is one way to die another is to vote zum don t commit suicide vote zanu pf and live 258 in the election mugabe was re elected president with nearly 80 of the vote while zanu pf secured 116 of the 119 available parliamentary seats 259 mugabe had long hoped to convert zimbabwe into a one party state but in 1990 he officially postponed these plans as both mozambique and many eastern bloc states transitioned from one party states to multi party republics 260 following the collapse of the marxist leninist regimes in the soviet union and the eastern bloc in 1991 zanu pf removed references to marxism leninism and scientific socialism in its material mugabe maintained that socialism remains our sworn ideology 261 that year mugabe pledged himself to free market economics and accepted a structural adjustment programme provided by the international monetary fund imf 262 this economic reform package called for zimbabwe to privatise state assets and reduce import tariffs 184 mugabe s government implemented some but not all of its recommendations 262 the reforms encouraged employers to cut their wages generating growing opposition from the zimbabwe congress of trade unions 263 by 1990 52 000 black families had been settled on 6 5 million acres this was insufficient to deal with the country s overcrowding problem which was being exacerbated by the growth in the black population 264 that year zimbabwe s parliament passed an amendment allowing the government to expropriate land at a fixed price while denying land owners the right of appeal to the courts 265 the government hoped that by doing so it could settle 110 000 black families on 13 million acres which would require the expropriation of approximately half of all white owned land 265 zimbabwe s commercial farmers union argued that the proposed measures would wreck the country s economy urging the government to instead settle landless blacks on the half a million acres of land that was either unproductive or state owned 266 concerns about the proposed measure particularly its denial of the right to appeal were voiced by the uk us and catholic commission for justice and peace 265 the us uk international monetary fund and world bank threatened that if zimbabwe implemented the law it would forfeit foreign aid packages 267 responding to the criticisms the government removed the ban on court appeals from the bill which was then passed as law 268 over the following few years hundreds of thousands of acres of largely white owned land were expropriated 269 in april 1994 a newspaper investigation found that not all of this was redistributed to landless blacks much of the expropriated land was being leased to ministers and senior officials such as witness mangwede who was leased a 3000 acre farm in hwedza 270 responding to this scandal in 1994 the uk government which had supplied 44 million for land redistribution halted its payments 271 in january 1992 mugabe s wife died 272 in april 1995 horizon magazine revealed that mugabe had secretly been having an affair with his secretary grace marufu since 1987 and that she had borne him a son and a daughter 273 his secret revealed mugabe decided to hold a much publicised wedding 12 000 people were invited to the august 1996 ceremony which took place in kutama and was orchestrated by the head of the catholic archbishop of harare patrick chakaipa 274 the ceremony was controversial among the catholic community because of the originally adulterous nature of mugabe and marufu s relationship 275 to house his family mugabe then built a new mansion at borrowdale 276 in the 1995 parliamentary election which saw a low turnout of 31 7 zanu pf gained 147 out of 150 seats 263 following the election mugabe expanded his cabinet from 29 to 42 ministers while the government adopted a 133 pay rise for mps 277 economic decline 1995 2000 edit by the mid 1990s mugabe had become an irascible and petulant dictator brooking no opposition contemptuous of the law and human rights surrounded by sycophantic ministers and indifferent to the incompetence and corruption around him his record of economic management was lamentable he had failed to satisfy popular expectations in education health land reform and employment and he had alienated the entire white community yet all the while mugabe continued to believe in his own greatness isolated and remote from ordinary reality possessing no close friends and showing clear signs of paranoia he listened only to an inner circle of conspiratorial aides and colleagues whatever difficulties occurred he attributed to old enemies britain the west the old rhodesian network all bent he believed on destroying his revolution mugabe biographer martin meredith 278 over the course of the 1990s zimbabwe s economy steadily deteriorated 279 by 2000 living standards had declined from 1980 life expectancy was reduced average wages were lower and unemployment had trebled 280 by 1998 unemployment was almost at 50 279 as of 2009 three to four million zimbabweans the greater part of the nation s skilled workforce had left the country 281 in 1997 there were growing demands for pensions from those who had fought for the guerrilla armies in the revolutionary war and in august 1997 mugabe put together a pension package that would cost the country z 4 2 billion 282 to finance this pension scheme mugabe s government proposed new taxes but a general strike was called in protest in december 1997 amid protest from zanu pf itself mugabe s government abandoned the taxes 283 in january 1998 riots about lack of access to food broke out in harare the army was deployed to restore order with at least ten killed and hundreds injured 284 mugabe increasingly blamed the country s economic problems on western nations and the white zimbabwean minority who still controlled most of its commercial agriculture mines and manufacturing industry 285 he called on supporters to strike fear in the hearts of the white man our real enemy 280 and accused his black opponents of being dupes of the whites 286 amid growing internal opposition to his government he remained determined to stay in power 280 he revived the regular use of revolutionary rhetoric and sought to re assert his credentials as an important revolutionary leader 287 mugabe also developed a growing preoccupation with homosexuality lambasting it as an un african import from europe 288 he described gay people as being guilty of sub human behavior and of being worse than dogs and pigs 289 this attitude may have stemmed in part from his strong conservative values but it was strengthened by the fact that several ministers in the british government were gay mugabe began to believe that there was a gay mafia and that all of his critics were homosexuals 290 critics also accused mugabe of using homophobia to distract attention from the country s problems 288 in august 1995 he was due to open a human rights themed zimbabwe international book fair in harare but refused to do so until a stall run by the group gays and lesbians of zimbabwe was evicted 291 in 1996 mugabe was appointed chair of the defense arm of the southern african development community sadc 292 without consulting parliament in august 1998 he ordered zimbabwean troops into the democratic republic of the congo to side with president laurent kabila in the second congo war 293 he initially committed 3000 troops to the operation this gradually rose to 11 000 293 he also persuaded angola and namibia to commit troops to the conflict 293 involvement in the war cost zimbabwe an approximate us 1 million a day contributing to its economic problems 293 opinion polls demonstrated that it was unpopular among zimbabwe s population 294 however several zimbabwean businesses profited having been given mining and timber concessions and preferential trade terms in minerals from kabila s government 293 in january 1999 23 military officers were arrested for plotting a coup against mugabe the government sought to hide this but it was reported by journalists from the standard the military subsequently illegally arrested the journalists and tortured them 295 this brought international condemnation with the eu and seven donor nations issuing protest notes 296 lawyers and human rights activists protested outside parliament until they were dispersed by riot police 296 and the country s supreme court judges issued a letter condemning the military s actions 297 in response mugabe publicly defended the use of extra legal arrest and torture 298 british prime minister tony blair with whom mugabe had a particularly antagonistic relationship in 1997 tony blair was elected prime minister of the uk after 18 years of conservative rule his labour government expressed reticence toward restarting the land resettlement payments promised by the lancaster house agreement with minister clare short rejecting the idea that the uk had any moral obligation to fund land redistribution 299 this attitude fuelled anti imperialist sentiment across africa 300 in october 1999 mugabe visited britain and in london the human rights activist peter tatchell attempted to place him under citizen s arrest 301 mugabe bel...