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of the two in nearly all cases hillel s opinion was accepted as normative by halakha and remains in effect halachic disputes edit examples edit only three or according to some authorities five disputes are recorded between hillel and shammai themselves 4 5 6 7 however with time the differences between their respective schools multiplied to the point that hundreds of disputes between them are recorded in the talmud the split between them was so deep that according to the talmud the torah became like two torahs 8 the matters they debated included admission to torah study beit shammai believed only worthy students should be admitted to study torah beit hillel believed that torah may be taught to anyone in the expectation that they will repent and become worthy 9 white lies whether one should tell an ugly bride she is beautiful beit shammai said it was wrong to lie and beit hillel said that all brides are beautiful on their wedding day 10 divorce beit shammai held that a man may divorce his wife for only a serious transgression but beit hillel allowed divorce for even trivial offenses such as burning a meal 11 hanukkah beit shammai held that on the first night eight lights should be lit and then one should decrease the number on each successive night ending with one on the last night in contrast beit hillel held that one should start with one light and increase the number on each night ending with eight beit hillel s rationale is that as a general rule in halakha one increases holiness rather than decreasing beit shammai s opinion was based on the halachic principle that allows one to derive law using similarities the sukkot temple sacrifices involved 70 bullocks reducing by one each day from 13 down to 7 12 tu bishvat beit hillel holds that the new year for trees is on the 15th of the jewish month of shevat beit shammai says it is on the 1st of shevat 13 beit hillel s opinion is now accepted and the new year is commonly known as tu bishvat literally 15th of shevat forgetting to say grace after meals beit shammai says that one who forgot to say birkat hamazon and had left where one ate should return to that place to recite birkat hamazon beit hillel says that one should recite birkat hamazon in the place where one realizes one s omission 14 the jerusalem talmud hagigah 2 brings a dispute concerning whether the laying of hands semikhah upon one s sacrificial animal with applied force is permitted to do on a festival day a division arose between the houses of hillel and shammai the one permitting it the other forbidding it the adherents to hillel s teaching who permit the laying on of hands declared כל גומרה דלא כויה בשעתיה לא כויה any coal that does not catch afire at the start of lighting the coals it will no longer catch afire when it is lit a second time this means that if individuals are to be saved from errors as life progresses they must be set on the proper course from the very outset if not they will persist in their errors shema beit shammai s opinion is that one says the shema lying down in the evening and standing up in the morning beit hillel says anyone can say it in any position they prefer beit shammai and beit hillel are respectively the eighth and ninth most frequently mentioned halakhic authorities in the mishnah 15 discussion edit in general beit shammai s positions were stricter than those of beit hillel 16 it was said that the school of shammai binds the school of hillel looses 17 on the few occasions when the opposite was true beit hillel would sometimes later recant its position 18 similarly though there are no records of beit shammai as a whole changing its stance a few individuals from beit shammai are recorded as deserting a particular stringent opinion of the school in favor of beit hillel s opinion 19 the final law almost always coincides with beit hillel not because it constituted the majority 20 but because beit hillel studied the view of its opponents and a divine voice bat kol was heard in yavne declaring a general rule of practice as stated in a notable talmudic sugya elu ve elu these and those are the words of the living god but the halakhah follows the school of hillel eruvin 13b 21 accordingly halakha was decided in favor of beit hillel since it was agreeable and forebearing or more literally piteous 22 not only did it teach beit shammai s teachings but it cited it before its own 23 the ruling in accordance with the teachings of hillel was also intended to bring conformity to jewish practices later in the elu ve elu passage eruvin 13b a disagreement is mentioned between the two schools on whether it would have been more suitable נוח for humankind to have been created or not to have been created with the school of shammai taking the position that it would have been preferable if humankind had not been created the passage then says something which seems to imply that the position of the school of shammai was accepted נמנו וגמרו נוח לו לאדם שלא נברא יותר משנברא modern rabbinic judaism almost invariably follows the teachings of hillel but there are several notable exceptions the mishna lists 18 matters in which the halakha was decided in favor of beit shammai 24 according to one opinion in the talmud while halakha follows beit hillel one may choose to follow either beit hillel or beit shammai as long as one does so consistently however if one follows the leniencies of both schools one is considered evil in contrast if one follows the stringencies of both schools the verse the fool walks in darkness 25 is applied to one 26 according to rabbi isaac luria in the future messianic age 27 halakha will follow beit shammai rather than beit hillel 28 history edit both the babylonian talmud and the jerusalem talmud attribute the wide range of disputes between the two schools of thought to the fact that the disciples of hillel and shammai did not fully serve their masters to the point of understanding the fine differences in halacha 29 the political principles of beit shammai were similar to those of the zealots among whom they therefore found support 16 as public indignation against the romans grew over the course of the 1st century beit shammai gradually gained the upper hand and the gentle and conciliatory beit hillel came to be ostracised from beit shammai s public acts of prayer 30 as the jewish conflict with the romans grew 31 the nations surrounding judea then part of roman iudaea province all sided with the romans causing beit shammai to propose that all commerce and communication between jew and gentile should be completely prohibited 16 beit hillel disagreed but when the sanhedrin convened to discuss the matter the zealots sided with beit shammai 16 then eleazar ben hanania the temple captain and a leader of the militant zealots invited the students of both schools to meet at his house eleazar placed armed men at the door and instructed them to let no one leave the meeting during the discussions beit shammai achieved a majority and were able to force all the remaining individuals to adopt a radically restrictive set of rules known as eighteen articles later jewish history came to look back on the occasion as a day of misfortune 32 according to one source beit shammai obtained their majority either by killing members of beit hillel or by intimidating them into leaving the room 33 however the fortunes of beit hillel improved after the first jewish roman war which had resulted in destruction of the jewish temple jewish leaders no longer had an appetite for war under gamaliel ii the sanhedrin which was reconstituted in yavne see also council of jamnia reviewed all the points disputed by beit hillel and this time it was their opinions which won the sanhedrin s support on most issues 34 it was said that whenever beit shammai had disputed the opinion of beit hillel beit shammai s opinion was now null and void 35 even though the two schools had vigorous arguments they greatly respected each other the mishnah even records that the constituents of the two schools intermarried despite their disagreements regarding the laws of marriage and divorce 36 according to the talmud each school kept track of lineages among its members to whom the other school would forbid marriage and informed the other school of this status when marriage to such a person was proposed 37 in later generations a fast day was observed due to the conflict between the two houses 38 though this fast day is no longer observed 39 various explanations are given of the tragedy which justified fasting bloodshed which killed 3 000 students 40 or else the simple fact of the torah being divided into two incompatible interpretations 41 enactments edit the houses of hillel and shammai convened to discuss arcane matters of jewish law and to decide on new measures thought essential to ensure a more universal adherence to jewish law and practice together they legislated many new enactments and passed new decrees in an effort to ensure that the people of israel not transgress the basic laws bequeathed to them by moses these enactments were therefore seen as safeguards by the rabbinic clergy while some of these enactments are still binding today others have been cancelled by scholars of later generations according to mishnah shabbat 1 4 42 disciples of hillel and shammai met in parley within the home of the astute hananiah ben hezekiah ben garon to vote on many new measures and to make them binding upon israel not all decisions were gladly received by the school of hillel but they were compelled to acquiesce unto the rulings by virtue of the greater numbers of the school of shammai seeing that they were the unanimous party and whose vote was the most consequential the sages at the time looked with displeasure upon many of these new enactments and decrees saying that they had gone too far and have filled up the measure 43 44 45 many of these rulings revolve around israelites and their relationship to the priests who are required to eat their terumah heave offering in a state of ritual purity talmudic exegete menachem meiri who cites maimonides lists the eighteen enactments decrees made by them as follows 46 number enactment e decree d purpose of enactment or decree 1 d a jew who consumes any food defiled by a father of uncleanness e g foods touched by carrion or by one of the eight dead creeping things etc and which foods contracted thereby a 1st grade uncleanness his body contracts a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption when touched by him 46 47 48 by making israelites ever mindful of what they eat as also the consequences thereof this ensured that the priests of aaron s descent would continue to eat their own hallowed bread in a state of ritual purity without suspecting that it had been defiled unawares 2 d a jew who consumes any defiled food that had contracted a 2nd grade uncleanness such as by the food touching a liquid that had been defiled by a dead creeping thing his body contracts a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption when touched by him 46 49 48 by making israelites ever mindful of what they eat as also the consequences thereof this ensured that the priests of aaron s descent would continue to eat their own hallowed bread in a state of ritual purity without suspecting that it had been defiled unawares 3 d he that drinks liquids that suffer a 1st grade uncleanness hebrew tǝḥilah 50 his body takes on a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption had he touched it 46 51 48 by making israelites ever mindful of what they eat as also the consequences thereof this ensured that the priests of aaron s descent would continue to eat their own hallowed bread in a state of ritual purity without suspecting that it had been defiled unawares 4 d he that immerses his head and the greater part of his body in water that had been drawn rather than in water which ran of itself naturally and collected into an immersion pool the person s body contracts a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption when touched by him 46 47 48 since the people were used to immersing within caves where the water was often fetid and muddy they would afterwards rinse themselves with drawn well water from a bucket to clean themselves from which practice they began to think that the drawn water was the principal act of cleansing rather than the immersion in the mikveh 51 5 d a ritually clean man upon whose head and the greater part of his body there had fallen 3 logs 52 of drawn water the person s body contracts a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption when touched by him 46 48 by saying that a ritually clean man becomes defiled thereby even so the man who is not ritually clean will take heed and not think to bathe himself in water that has been drawn but rather in a ritual bath of natural rain water or spring water 49 51 6 d any jew who touches a torah scroll his hands contract a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption by a priest 46 to prevent israelites from stashing the terumah inside the torah encasement where mice would often come and consume the bread but also destroy the torah scroll in the process 53 49 moreover by saying that hands are defiled by touching a torah scroll the reader takes precaution to use a scarf as an interposing object between his bare hands and the scroll itself 51 7 d e all hands before they are washed suffer a 2nd grade uncleanness capable of rendering the terumah unfit for consumption by the priests 46 49 48 moreover all persons must wash their hands before eating common bread by declaring that all hands suffer a state of uncleanness and requiring them to be washed before eating common bread so too the priests will follow suit and wash their own hands before eating their hallowed bread 54 moreover since hands are normally fidgety and are prone to touch defiled liquids removing the suspected impurity through washing can prevent a further spread of defilement to hallowed things 51 55 8 d a jew who ate any food that came in contact with a liquid touched by unwashed hands his body contracts a 2nd grade uncleanness the same rule applies to liquids contained in a vessels wherein one of the dead creeping things had fallen 46 56 by saying that a person is capable of contracting defilement from liquids touched by unwashed hands he will thereby become doubly cautious about liquids wherein one of the eight dead creeping things had fallen likewise by saying that a person is capable of contracting defilement by liquids in a vessel wherein one of the dead creeping things had fallen he will thereby become doubly cautious about liquids e g spittle urine etc that issue forth from a zav i e the man who has suffered a running issue from his flesh 57 9 d he that inadvertently left a vessel beneath a channel that carried water at a time when rain clou...