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due in part to scorched earth tactics and concentration camps in which 27 000 boer civilians died due to a combination of disease and neglect 86 south africa s urban population grew rapidly from the end of the 19th century onward after the devastation of the wars boer farmers fled into transvaal and orange free state cities many of whom would come to constitute an urban class of poor whites 87 anti british policies among white south africans focused on independence during the dutch and british colonial years racial segregation was mostly informal though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of indigenous people including the native location act of 1879 and the system of pass laws 88 89 90 91 92 eight years after the end of the second boer war and after four years of negotiation the south africa act 1909 created the union of south africa on 31 may 1910 granting the country nominal independence the union was a dominion that included the former territories of the cape transvaal and natal colonies as well as the orange free state republic 93 the natives land act of 1913 which was passed by the british ruling the parliament of the newly formed union of south africa severely restricted the ownership of land by black south africans who at that stage controlled only 7 of the country the amount of land reserved for indigenous peoples was later marginally increased 94 in 1931 the union became fully sovereign from the united kingdom with the passage of the statute of westminster which abolished the last powers of the parliament of the united kingdom to legislate in the country in 1934 the south african party and national party merged to form the united party seeking reconciliation between afrikaners and english speaking whites in 1939 the party split over the entry of the union into world war ii as an ally of the united kingdom a move which national party followers opposed 95 apartheid era main articles apartheid history of south africa 1948 1994 and republic of south africa 1961 1984 d f malan the first apartheid era prime minister 1948 1954 in 1948 the national party was elected to power it strengthened the racial segregation begun under dutch and british colonial rule taking canada s indian act as a framework 96 the nationalist government classified all peoples into three races being whites blacks and indians and coloured people and developed rights and limitations for each the white led minoritarian government 97 instituted a policy of legally institutionalised segregation which came to be known as apartheid while whites enjoyed a higher standard of living comparable to first world western nations the black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard including income education housing and life expectancy 98 the freedom charter adopted in 1955 by the congress alliance which was multi racial in makeup demanded a non racial society and an end to discrimination on 31 may 1961 the country became a republic following a referendum only open to white voters which narrowly passed 99 the british dominated natal province largely voted against the proposal elizabeth ii lost the title queen of south africa and the last governor general charles robberts swart became state president as a concession to the westminster system the appointment of the president remained by parliament and the position was virtually powerless until p w botha s constitution act of 1983 which eliminated the office of prime minister and instated a unique strong presidency responsible to parliament pressured by other commonwealth of nations countries south africa withdrew from the organisation in 1961 despite opposition to apartheid both within and outside the country from all racial backgrounds the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid the security forces cracked down on internal dissent and violence became widespread with anti apartheid organisations such as the african national congress anc the azanian people s organisation and the pan africanist congress carrying out guerrilla warfare urban sabotage and according to oxford academic acts of terrorism 100 101 102 the three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence 103 apartheid became increasingly controversial and several countries began to boycott business with the south african government because of its racial policies the boycotts and restrictions were later extended to international sanctions and the divestment of holdings by foreign investors 104 105 post apartheid further information history of south africa 1994 present f w de klerk and nelson mandela shake hands in january 1992 the mahlabatini declaration of faith signed by mangosuthu buthelezi and harry schwarz in 1974 enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in south africa 106 ultimately f w de klerk opened bilateral discussions with nelson mandela in 1993 for a transition of policies and government in 1990 the national party government took the first step towards dismantling apartheid when it lifted the ban on the anc and other political organisations it released nelson mandela from prison after 27 years of serving a sentence for sabotage and treason a negotiation process followed with approval from the white electorate in a 1992 referendum the government continued negotiations to end apartheid south africa held its first universal elections in 1994 which the anc won by an overwhelming majority the country rejoined the commonwealth of nations and became a member of the southern african development community 107 supporters watching the 2010 fifa world cup with vuvuzelas in the township of soweto a suburb of johannesburg the post apartheid period whilst plagued by high unemployment and increasing income inequality 108 109 110 has been characterised by relative political stability the country has however seen periodic outbreaks of violence most notably the 2008 xenophobic riots during which over 60 people were killed 111 and an estimated 100 000 people were driven from their homes 112 and the marikana massacre which constituted the most lethal use of force by south african security forces against civilians since the soweto uprising 113 widespread political corruption and state capture took place under the presidency of jacob zuma 114 115 116 117 118 whose brief imprisonment for contempt of court during the course of his trial for corruption in 2021 led to widespread unrest which left 354 people dead 119 the electoral dominance of the anc has gradually declined since the early 2000s with the party failing to secure a parliamentary majority for the first time in the 2024 general election 120 president cyril ramaphosa subsequently formed the government of national unity with amongst others the democratic alliance 121 geography main article geography of south africa satellite image of south africa south africa is in southern africa with a coastline that stretches more than 2 500 km 1 553 mi and along two oceans the south atlantic and the indian ocean at 1 219 912 km 2 471 011 sq mi in area 122 south africa is the 24th largest country in the world 123 excluding the prince edward islands the country lies between latitudes 22 and 35 s and longitudes 16 and 33 e the interior of south africa consists of a large and in most places almost flat plateau with an altitude of between 1 000 m 3 300 ft and 2 100 m 6 900 ft it is highest in the east and slopes gently downwards towards the west and north and slightly to the south and south west 124 this plateau is surrounded by the great escarpment 125 whose eastern and highest stretch is known as the drakensberg 126 mafadi in the drakensberg is the highest peak in the country at 3 450 m 11 320 ft above sea level the kwazulu natal lesotho international border is formed by the highest portion of the great escarpment which reaches an altitude of over 3 000 m 9 800 ft 127 the south and south western parts of the plateau at approximately 1 100 1 800 m above sea level and the adjoining plain below at approximately 700 800 m above sea level see map on the right are together known as the great karoo which consists of sparsely populated shrubland to the north the great karoo fades into the more arid bushmanland which eventually becomes the kalahari desert in the north west of the country the mid eastern and highest part of the plateau is known as the highveld this relatively well watered area is home to a great proportion of the country s commercial farmlands and contains its largest conurbation gauteng to the north of the highveld from about the 25 30 s line of latitude the plateau slopes downwards into the bushveld which ultimately gives way to the limpopo river lowlands the lowveld 125 the coastal belt below the great escarpment moving clockwise from the northeast consists of the limpopo lowveld which merges into the mpumalanga lowveld below the mpumalanga drakensberg the eastern portion of the great escarpment 128 this is hotter drier and less intensely cultivated than the highveld above the escarpment 125 the kruger national park located in the provinces of limpopo and mpumalanga in north eastern south africa occupies a large portion of the lowveld covering 19 633 square kilometres 7 580 sq mi 129 drakensberg the eastern and highest portion of the great escarpment which surrounds the east south and western borders of the central plateau the coastal belt below the south and south western stretches of the great escarpment contains several ranges of cape fold mountains which run parallel to the coast separating the great escarpment from the ocean 130 131 the land between the outeniqua and langeberg ranges to the south and the swartberg range to the north is known as the little karoo 125 which consists of semi desert shrubland similar to that of the great karoo except that its northern strip along the foothills of the swartberg mountains has a somewhat higher rainfall and is therefore more cultivated than the great karoo the little karoo is famous for its ostrich farming around oudtshoorn the lowland area to the north of the swartberg range up to the great escarpment is the lowland part of the great karoo which is climatically and botanically almost indistinguishable from the karoo above the great escarpment the narrow coastal strip between the outeniqua and langeberg ranges and the ocean known as the garden route has a moderately high year round rainfall and hosts the most extensive area of forest in the country in the south west corner of the country the cape peninsula forms the southernmost tip of the coastal strip which borders the atlantic ocean and ultimately terminates at the country s border with namibia at the orange river the cape peninsula has a mediterranean climate making it and its immediate surrounds the only portion of sub saharan africa which receives most of its rainfall in winter 132 133 the coastal belt to the north of the cape peninsula is bounded on the west by the atlantic ocean and the first row of north south running cape fold mountains to the east the cape fold mountains peter out at about the 32 s line of latitude 131 after which the great escarpment bounds the coastal plain the most southerly portion of this coastal belt is known as the swartland and malmesbury plain which is an important wheat growing region relying on winter rains the region further north is known as namaqualand 134 which becomes more arid near the orange river the little rain that falls tends to fall in winter 133 which results in one of the world s most spectacular displays of flowers carpeting huge stretches of veld in spring august september south africa also has one offshore possession the small sub antarctic archipelago of the prince edward islands consisting of marion island 290 km 2 or 110 sq mi and prince edward island 45 km 2 or 17 sq mi climate main article climate of south africa köppen climate types of south africa south africa has a generally temperate climate because it is surrounded by the atlantic and indian oceans on three sides because it is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere and because its average elevation rises steadily toward the north toward the equator and further inland this varied topography and oceanic influence result in a great variety of climatic zones the climatic zones range from the extreme desert of the southern namib in the farthest northwest to the lush subtropical climate in the east along the border with mozambique and the indian ocean winters in south africa occur between june and august the extreme southwest has a climate similar to that of the mediterranean with wet winters and hot dry summers hosting the famous fynbos biome of shrubland and thicket this area produces much of the wine in south africa and is known for its wind which blows intermittently almost all year the severity of this wind made passing around the cape of good hope particularly treacherous for sailors causing many shipwrecks further east on the south coast rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year producing a green landscape the annual rainfall increases south of the lowveld especially near the coast which is subtropical the free state is particularly flat because it lies centrally on the high plateau north of the vaal river the highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat johannesburg in the centre of the highveld is at 1 740 m 5 709 ft above sea level and receives an annual rainfall of 760 mm 29 9 in winters in this region are cold although snow is rare 135 the coldest place on mainland south africa is buffelsfontein in the eastern cape where a temperature of 20 1 c 4 2 f was recorded in 2013 136 the prince edward islands have colder average annual temperatures but buffelsfontein has colder extremes the deep interior of mainland south africa has the hottest temperatures a temperature of 51 7 c 125 06 f was recorded in 1948 in the northern cape kalahari near upington 137 but this temperature is unofficial and was not recorded with standard equipment the official highest temperature is 48 8 c 119 84 f at vioolsdrif in january 1993 138 climate change in south africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability extreme weather events are becoming more prominent 139 this is a critical concern for south africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country for example with regards to water resources speedy environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on the community and environmental level in different ways and aspects starting with air quality to temperature and weather patterns reaching out to food security and disease burden 140 according to computer generated climate modelling produced by the south african national biodiversity institute 141 parts of sou...