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ong stakeholders 92 93 such organizations are argued to be crucial to develop and implement a comprehensive and coordinated global strategy for cable security 111 as of 2025 a tense u s china relationship complicates this task especially in the south china sea where there are territorial disputes china has increasing control and influence over global cables networks while both it and the usa financially supports allied owned cable projects and exerts diplomatic pressure and regulatory action e g against vietnam 129 92 97 103 in light of nord stream pipelines sabotage in the baltic sea where subsea infrastructure vital to germany and russia was physically destroyed and other incidents there nato has increased patrols and monitoring operations 94 130 legal perspective edit legal vulnerabilities edit submarine cables are internationally regulated within the framework of the united nations convention on the law of the sea unclos in particular through the provisions of articles 112 and 97 112 and 115 which mandate operational freedom to lay cables in international waters and beyond the continental shelf and reward measures to protect against shipping accidents 131 however submarine cables face significant legal challenges and lack specific legal protection in unclos and enforcement mechanisms against emerging threats particular in international waters 90 131 111 96 this is further complicated by the non ratification of the treaty by key states such as the u s and turkey 93 many countries lack explicit legal provisions to criminalize the destruction or theft of undersea cables creating jurisdictional ambiguities that organized crime can exploit 92 96 111 other legal frameworks such as the 1884 convention for the protection of submarine telegraph cables are outdated and fail to address modern threats like cyberattacks and hybrid warfare tactics 96 the unclear jurisdiction and weak enforcement mechanisms demonstrate the difficulty to protect submarine cables from organized crime the arctic ocean in particular exemplifies the challenges associated with surveillance and enforcement in vast and remote areas leaving a legal vacuum that criminals may exploit in the arctic the absence of a central international authority to oversee submarine cable protection and the reliance on military organizations like nato hinders general coordinated global responses 80 organizations such as the icpc thus highlight the need for updated and more comprehensive legal frameworks to ensure the security of submarine cables 132 legal countermeasures edit the legal challenges of protecting submarine cables from organized crime have resulted in recommendations ranging from treaty amendments to domestic law reforms and multi level governance models some scholars argue that unclos should be updated to protect cables extensively including cooperative monitoring and enforcement protocols 131 additionally principles from the law of the sea state responsibility and the laws on the use of force could be creatively applied to strengthen protections for cables 96 enforcement issues could be tackled by aligning domestic laws with unclos implementing national response protocols and creating streamlined points of contact for cable incidents 96 given the increased involvement of organizations like nato others recommend to clarify the roles of military and non military actors in cable security and enhanced multi level governance models 80 114 while these proposed legal solutions seem promising their practical implementation still remains a challenge due to the complexity of international treaties the need for international cooperation the lack of domestic criminalization of cable damage and the evolving nature of technological threats 90 92 96 111 additionally while unclos s ambiguous jurisdiction in international waters hinders effective enforcement limited political interests seems to hamper treaty development 90 92 94 environmental impact edit the presence of cables in the oceans can be a danger to marine life with the proliferation of cable installations and the increasing demand for inter connectivity that today s society demands the environmental impact is increasing submarine cables can impact marine life in a number of ways alteration of the seabed edit seabed ecosystems can be disturbed by the installation and maintenance of cables the effects of cable installation are generally limited to specific areas the intensity of disturbance depends on the installation method cables are often laid in the so called benthic zone of the seabed the benthic zone is the ecological region at the bottom of the sea where benthos clams and crabs live and where the surface sediments which are deposits of matter and particles in the water that provide a habitat for marine species are located sediment can be damaged by cable installation by trenching with water jets or ploughing this can lead to reworking of the sediments altering the substrate of which they are composed according to several studies the biota of the benthic zone is only slightly affected by the presence of cables however the presence of cables can trigger behavioral disturbances in living organisms 133 the main observation is that the presence of cables provides a hard substrate for anemones attachment these organisms are found in large number around cables that run through soft sediments which are not normally suitable for these organisms this is also the case for flatfish although little observed the presence of cables can also change the water temperature and therefore disturb the surrounding natural habitat however these disturbances are not very persistent over time and can stabilize within a few days cable operators are trying to implement measures to route cables in such a way as to avoid areas with sensitive and vulnerable ecosystems entanglement edit entanglement of marine animals in cables is one of the main causes of cable damage whales are the main animals that entangle themselves in cables and damage them the encounter between these animals and cables can cause injury and sometimes death studies carried out between 1877 and 1955 reported 16 cable ruptures caused by whale entanglement 13 of them by sperm whales between 1907 and 2006 39 such events were recorded 134 cable burial techniques are gradually being introduced to prevent such incidents the risk of fishing edit although submarine cables are located on the seabed fishing activity can damage the cables fishermen using fishing techniques that involve scraping the seabed or dragging equipment such as trawls or cages can damage the cables resulting in the loss of liquids and the chemical and toxic materials that make up the cables areas with a high density of submarine cables have the advantage of being safer from fishing at the expense of benthic and sedimentary zones marine fauna is better protected in these maritime regions thanks to limitations and bans studies have shown a positive effect on the fauna surrounding cable installation zones 135 pollution edit submarine cables are made of copper or optical fibers surrounded by several protective layers of plastic wire or synthetic materials cables can also be composed of dielectric fluids or hydrocarbon fluids which act as electrical insulators these substances can be harmful to marine life 136 fishing aging cables and marine species that collide with or become entangled in cables can damage cables and spread toxic and harmful substances into the sea however the impact of submarine cables is limited compared with other sources of ocean pollution there is also a risk of releasing pollutants buried in sediments when sediments are re suspended due to the installation of cables toxic substances such as hydrocarbons may be released preliminary analyses can assess the level of sediment toxicity and select a cable route that avoids the remobilization and dispersion of sediment pollutants and new more modern techniques will make it possible to use less polluting materials for cable construction 134 sound waves and electromagnetic waves edit the installation and maintenance of cables requires the use of machinery and equipment that can trigger sound waves or electromagnetic waves that can disturb animals that use waves to find their bearings in space or to communicate underwater sound waves depend on the equipment used the characteristics of the seabed area where the cables are located and the relief of the area 134 underwater noise and waves can modify the behavior of certain underwater species such as migratory behavior disrupting communication or reproduction available information is that underwater noise generated by submarine cable engineering operations has limited acoustic footprint and limited duration 137 see also edit bathometer cable layer cable landing point freedom of the seas list of domestic submarine communications cables list of international submarine communications cables loaded 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