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tsang phenpo lhokha tö kongpo in kongpo with basum south western sherpa and jirel other languages dialects along the sino nepalese border humla mugu dolpo lo ke nubri tsum langtang kyirong yolmo gyalsumdo kagate lhomi walungge tokpe gola southern dzongkha drengjong tsamang dhromo lakha dur brokkat mera sakteng brokpa ke south eastern hor nagchu hor bachen yushu pembar rongdrak minyak dzayul derong jol chaktreng muli dappa semkyi nyida northern route dialects chamdo chab mdo derge sde dge and kandze dkar mdzes southern route dialects markham smar khams bathang ba thang lithang li thang eastern drugchu khöpokhok thewo chone baima sharkhok palkyi or pashi four dialects including chos rje and zhongu north eastern amdo gser rdo 13 gserpa khalong tournadre 2005 2008 edit tournadre 2005 14 classifies the tibetic languages as follows tibetic central tibetan the basis of standard tibetan that includes various nepalese varieties khams amdo dzongkha lhokä dzongkha sikkimese lakha naapa chocangaca brokkat brokpa and probably groma ladakhi balti ladakhi burig zangskari balti lahuli spiti kyirong kagate sherpa jirel sherpa jirel the other languages thewo chone zhongu khalong dongwang gserpa zitsadegu drugchu baima are not mutually intelligible but are not known well enough to classify mdungnag a tibetan language spoken in gansu is also divergent and is not mutually intelligible with either khams or amdo 15 tournadre 2013 adds tseku and khamba to khams and groups thewo chone zhongu and baima as an eastern branch of tibetic bradley 1997 edit according to bradley 16 the languages cluster as follows dialect information from the tibetan dialects project at the university of bern tibetic western archaic tibetan non tonal including ladakhi balti and burig amdo tibetan including thewo chone non tonal khams tibetan tonal western innovative tibetan lahuli spiti slightly tonal dialects of upper ladakh and zanskar of the northwest indian border area lahaul and spiti district and uttarakhand and of zanda county westernmost tibet central tibetan slightly tonal most dialects of ngari prefecture in western tibet of the northern nepalese border area in nepal tsang dialects of shigatse prefecture and ü dialects lhokha lhasa etc the basis of standard tibetan northern tibetan slightly tonal dialects of gêrzê of nagqu prefecture in north central tibet and of nangqên county in south qinghai considered dialects of khams by tournadre southern tibetan slightly tonal groma language of chumbi valley in southern tsang sikkimese in india sherpa and jirel in nepal and various languages of bhutan dzongkha brokkat brokpa chocangaca lakha laya dialect lunana dialect other some classifications group khams and amdo together as eastern tibetan not to be confused with east bodish whose speakers are not ethnically tibetan some like tournadre break up central tibetan phrases such as central tibetan and central bodish may or may not be synonymous southern central tibetan can be found as southern bodish for example central tibetan may mean dbus or all tonal lects apart from khams western bodish may be used for the non tonal western lects while western tibetan is used for the tonal lects or bodish may even be used for other branches of the tibeto kanauri languages 17 lexical similarity edit amdo tibetan has 70 lexical similarity with central tibetan and khams tibetan while khams tibetan has 80 lexical similarity with central tibetan 18 geographical distribution edit the tibetic speaking area spans six countries china prc nepal pakistan india bhutan and myanmar 3 19 tibetan is also spoken in diaspora communities in europe north america e g little tibet toronto asia and australia 20 china edit within china the great majority of tibetic speakers are officially classified into the tibetan ethnicity which however includes speakers of other trans himalayan languages such as rgyalrongnic 21 aside from tibet autonomous region there are several autonomous prefectures for the ethnicities in sichuan qinghai gansu and yunnan 22 nepal edit lhasa tibetan or more technically standard tibetan natively called སྤྱི སྐད spyi skad is used among post 1950s tibetan emigrants to nepal 3 other tibetic varieties such as sherpa jirel and yolmo are spoken in districts along the china nepal border 23 24 bhutan edit the national language of bhutan is dzongkha a tibetic language originally spoken in the western region 24 although non tibetic languages tshangla east bodish are dominant in many parts of the country dzongkha is also widely used there as a second language 24 other tibetic varieties of bhutan include choča ngača brokpa and lakha 25 pakistan edit within areas administrated by pakistan balti is spoken in gilgit baltistan 24 india edit within areas administrated by india some tibetic varieties are spoken in ladakh sikkim himachal pradesh kinnaur lahul and spiti west bengal darjeeling and kalimpong as well as uttarakhand 24 26 as with bhutan and nepal there reside a number of tibetan refugees across the country notably in dharamshala where the headquarters of the central tibetan administration is located 27 myanmar edit in myanmar a variant of khams tibetan is spoken near the hkakabo razi kachin state which is adjacent to nujiang lisu autonomous prefecture yunnan and tibet autonomous region 28 suzuki 2012 describes the phonology of the sangdam dialect as well as giving a brief overview of tibetic varieties in the country he estimates there are about 300 khams tibetan speakers inhabiting at least four villages in dazundam village tract pannandin sub township nogmong township putao district kachin state 29 the four villages he mentions are tahaundam shidudan japanese シドゥダン sandam madin the second of which he provides no romanization because the placename is uncharted on the map available to him 29 according to suzuki s consultant they migrated from zayu county tibet more than a century ago although they still have contact with relatives living there and there are few differences between the dialects of the four villages 30 since rawang people are the ethnic majority of the area the tibetans also have a command of rawang which is mainly used for interethnic communication those with primary education can speak and write burmese as well while they are illiterate in their own language 30 see also tibetans in burma writing systems edit main articles tibetan script and tibetan braille most tibetic languages are written in one of two indic scripts standard tibetan and most other tibetic languages are written in the tibetan script with a historically conservative orthography see below that helps unify the tibetan language area some other tibetan languages in india and nepal are written in the related devanagari script which is also used to write hindi nepali and many other languages however some ladakhi and balti speakers write with the urdu script this occurs almost exclusively in pakistan the tibetan script fell out of use in pakistani baltistan hundreds of years ago upon the region s adoption of islam however increased concern among balti people for the preservation of their language and traditions especially in the face of strong punjabi cultural influence throughout pakistan has fostered renewed interest in reviving the tibetan script and using it alongside the perso arabic script many shops in baltistan s capital skardu in pakistan s northern areas region have begun supplementing signs written in the perso arabic script with signs written in the tibetan script baltis see this initiative not as separatist but rather as part of an attempt to preserve the cultural aspects of their region which has shared a close history with neighbours like kashmiris and punjabis since the arrival of islam in the region many centuries ago historical phonology edit main article sound correspondences between tibetic languages old tibetan phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script the finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters the graphic combinations hr and lh represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to r and l respectively the letter was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants whether the gigu verso had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial for instance srongbtsan sgampo would have been pronounced sroŋpʦan zɡampo now pronounced sɔ́ŋʦɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo in lhasa tibetan and babs would have been pronounced mbaps pronounced bapˤ dubious discuss in lhasa tibetan already in the 9th century the process of cluster simplification devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects as can be shown by tibetan words transliterated into other languages particularly middle chinese but also uyghur the combination of the abovementioned evidence enables us to form the following outline of the evolution of tibetan in the 9th century as shown by the bilingual tibetan chinese treaty of 821 822 found in front of lhasa s jokhang the complex initial clusters had already been reduced and the process of tonogenesis was likely well underway the next change took place in tsang gtsang dialects the ra tags were altered into retroflex consonants and the ya tags became palatals later on the superscribed letters and finals d and s disappeared except in the east and west it was at this stage that the language spread in lahul and spiti where the superscribed letters were silent the d and g finals were hardly heard and as os us were pronounced ai oi ui the words introduced from tibet into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those borrowed at an earlier period other changes are more recent and restricted to ü and tsang in ü the vowel sounds a o u have now mostly umlauted to ä ö ü when followed by the coronal sounds i d s l and n the same holds for tsang with the exception of l which merely lengthens the vowel the medials have become aspirate tenues with a low intonation which also marks words having a simple initial consonant while the former aspirates and the complex initials simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone shrill and rapidly reconstruction edit proto tibetic edit proto tibetic the hypothetical proto language ancestral to the tibetic languages has been reconstructed by tournadre 2014 3 proto tibetic is similar to but not identical to written classical literary tibetan the following phonological features are characteristic of proto tibetic tournadre 2014 113 the prefixes s ǝ d ǝ g ǝ m ǝ and b ǝ which have been retained from proto tibeto burman s ǝ is primarily used with animals and body parts as well as d ǝ g ǝ and m ǝ r ǝ palatalization of dental and alveolar consonants before y j consonant change from lateral to dental position after m e g ml md distinctive aspirated initial stops this phenomenon is attested by alternating aspirated and non aspirated consonants in old tibetan orthography examples include gcig gchig གཅིག གཆིག one phyin chad phyin cad ཕྱིན ཆད ཕྱིན ཅད from now on ci chi ཅི ཆི what and cu chu ཅུ ཆུ water reconstructed proto tibetic forms from tournadre 2014 include g ǝ tɕik one g ǝ nyis two g ǝ su three b ǝ ʑi four l ǝ ŋa five d ǝ ruk six b ǝ dun seven b ǝ rgyat eight d ǝ gu nine b ǝ tɕu ten s ǝ dik pa scorpion s ǝ bal frog s ǝ tak tiger s ǝ b rul snake s ǝ pra monkey s ǝ kra hair s ǝ nyiŋ heart s ǝ na nose d ǝ myik eye m ǝ go head r ǝ na ear pre tibetic edit pre tibetic is a hypothetical pre formation stage of proto tibetic 3 ty ly sy were not palatalized in pre tibetic but underwent palatalization in proto tibetic tournadre 2014 113 114 3 posited sound changes from pre tibetic to proto tibetic include ty tɕ sy ɕ tsy tɕ and ly ʑ however tournadre 2014 114 notes that many bodish languages such as basum tamang and kurtöp east bodish have not undergone these changes e g bake basum ti what vs proto tibetic tɕ h i and bake tɨ one vs proto tibetic g ǝ tɕ h ik kurtöp h la iron and bumthap lak iron vs proto tibetic ltɕaks some pre tibetic reconstructions along with reconstructed proto tibetic forms and orthographic classical literary tibetan from tournadre 2014 114 116 are listed below gloss pre tibetic proto tibetic classical literary tibetan one g ǝ tyik g ǝ tɕ h ik gcig gchig གཅིག གཆིག old tibetan big tye tɕ h e che ཆེ old tibetan ten b ǝ tyu b ǝ tɕu bcu bchu བཅུ བཆུ old tibetan what tyi tɕ h i ci chi ཅི ཆི old tibetan flesh sya ɕa sha ཤ know syes ɕes shes ཤེས wood sying ɕiŋ shing ཤིང to cut past stem b ǝ tsyat b ǝ tɕat bcad བཅད spittle m ǝ tsyil ma m ǝ tɕ h il ma mchil ma མཆིལ མ liver m ǝ tsin pa m ǝ tɕ h in pa mchin pa མཆིན པ four b ǝ lyi b ǝ ʑi bzhi བཞི field lying ʑiŋ zhing ཞིང flea ldi ldʑi lji ལྗི ji འཇི iron s ǝ lak s l sak s l tsyak s ltɕaks lcags ལྕགས arrow mda mda མདའ to suppress bnans mnans mnand old tibetan to listen bnyan nyan mnyand eye d ǝ myik dmyig དམྱིག old tibetan mig flower mentok men tog མེན ཏོག old tibetan me tog comparison of numerals edit the numerals in different tibetan tibetic languages are 31 gloss ü tsang middle amdo khams classical tibetan lhasa cheng zhang dolpo jirel mugom sherpa yohlmo 1 ʨiʔ 53 ʨi 53 ʂik dokpoi ʧɪk ʦɪk 55 ʨīː xʨɨx ʨi 55 xʨik gtšig 2 ȵi 55 ȵi 55 ɲiː ŋi ŋi ŋi 55 ɲìː ɦȵi ɲɯ 53 gnis gnis 3 sum 55 sɔ̃ 53 sum sum sum sum 55 sūm sɘm sũ 53 xsum gsum 4 ɕi 13 ɣɯ 31 ɕi̤ː si ɕi ʣi 55 ʑì̤ ɦʑɘ ʐə 33 βʑi bži 5 ŋa 53 ɴɐ 53 ŋa ŋa ŋá ŋɑ 55 ŋɑ̀ ɦŋa ŋɑ 53 ɬŋɑ lŋa 6 tʂʰuʔ 13 tʂu 31 ʈṳk tʰuk duk ɖʊk 11 ʈṳ̀ː tʂəx tʂo 33 dɽuk drug 7 tỹ 15 dɛ̃ 24 ty̤n duin dun dɪn 55 t̪ì̤n ɦdɘn dĩ 33 βdun bdun 8 ɕɛʔ 13 dʑe 31 ce̤ʔ get ket gæ 55 cē̤ː ɦdʑʲɛ ʑe 33 βɽgjat brgyad 9 ku 13 ɡɯ 31 kṳ gu gu gu 55 kṳ̀ ɦgɘ gə 33 dgu dgu 10 ʨu 53 ʨɯ 53 tɕu ʦutʰambaː ʧú ʦi 55 tʰɑm 11 ba 11 ʨʉ̄ ʨɘ ʨə 55 ɸʨu btšu for the central or eastern tibetic languages gloss dzongkha lakha balti ladakhi spiti bhoti dzongkha sikkimese balti changthang ladakhi purik zangskari 1 ʨí ʧi ʧik ʧik ʧik ʧik ʧiʔ ʧík 2 ɲí ni ɲis ɲis ɲis ɲis ɲiː ɲiː 3 súm súm xsum sum sum sum sum súm 4 ʃi̤ ʒe βʒi zi zi ʒi ʒi ʒì 5 ŋə ŋa ɣɑ ŋa ʂŋa ʂŋə ŋa ŋá 6 dʑo tʰu truk ɖruk ʈuk ʈuk ʈuʔ ʈùk 7 ty̤n dĩ βdun dun rdun rdun ðun dùn 8 kæ̤ gɛ βgyʌt gʲat rgʲat rgyət ʝət ɟèt 9 kṳ go rgu gu rgu rgu ɣu gù 10 ʨu tʰam ʧɔːmba ɸʧu ʧu rʧu rču ʧu ʧú references edit beyer stephan v 1992 the classical tibetan language suny press isbn 0 7914 1099 4 denwood philip 1999 tibetan john benjamins publishing isbn 90 272 3803 0 izzard jeff robert 2015 language attitudes and identity in the tibetan dharamsala diaspora ph d thesis soas university of london retrieved 2024 02 20 nishi yoshiro 1987 gendei tibet go hoogen no bunrui 現代チベット語方言の分類 a classification of tibetan dialects bulletin of the national museum of ethnology 11 4 837 900 hdl 10502 2932 sagart laurent jacques guillaume lai yunfan ryder robin thouzeau valentin greenhill simon j list johann mattis 2019 dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of sino tibetan proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the...