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ling in increments of 0 5 from t1 0 to t8 0 each t number has an intensity assigned to it with larger t numbers indicating a stronger system tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns including curved banding features shear central dense overcast and eye to determine the t number and thus assess the intensity of the storm 104 the cooperative institute for meteorological satellite studies works to develop and improve automated satellite methods such as the advanced dvorak technique adt and satcon the adt used by a large number of forecasting centers uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm based upon the dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical cyclones the adt has a number of differences from the conventional dvorak technique including changes to intensity constraint rules and the usage of microwave imagery to base a system s intensity upon its internal structure which prevents the intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery 105 the satcon weights estimates from various satellite based systems and microwave sounders accounting for the strengths and flaws in each individual estimate to produce a consensus estimate of a tropical cyclone s intensity which can be more reliable than the dvorak technique at times 106 107 intensity metrics multiple intensity metrics are used including accumulated cyclone energy ace the hurricane surge index the hurricane severity index the power dissipation index pdi and integrated kinetic energy ike ace is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan ace is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone s sustained wind speed every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical 108 the calculation of the pdi is similar in nature to ace with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared 109 the hurricane surge index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge it is calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm s wind speed and a climatological value 33 m s or 74 mph and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane force winds and its climatological value 96 6 km or 60 0 mi this can be represented in equation form as v 33 m s 2 r 96 6 k m displaystyle left frac v 33 mathrm m s right 2 times left frac r 96 6 mathrm km right where v textstyle v is the storm s wind speed and r textstyle r is the radius of hurricane force winds 110 the hurricane severity index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system up to 25 points come from intensity while the other 25 come from the size of the storm s wind field 111 the ike model measures the destructive capability of a tropical cyclone via winds waves and surge it is calculated as v o l 1 2 p u 2 d v displaystyle int _ vol frac 1 2 pu 2 d_ v where p textstyle p is the density of air u textstyle u is a sustained surface wind speed value and d v textstyle d_ v is the volume element 111 112 classification and naming terminology for tropical cyclones on a world map classification main article tropical cyclone scales three tropical cyclones of the 2006 pacific typhoon season at different stages of development the weakest left demonstrates only the most basic circular shape a stronger storm top right demonstrates spiral banding and increased centralization while the strongest lower right has developed an eye around the world tropical cyclones are classified in different ways based on the location tropical cyclone basins the structure of the system and its intensity for example within the northern atlantic and eastern pacific basins a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65 kn 120 km h 75 mph is called a hurricane while it is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the western pacific or north indian oceans 19 20 21 when a hurricane passes west across the international dateline in the northern hemisphere it becomes known as a typhoon this happened in 2014 for hurricane genevieve which became typhoon genevieve 113 within the southern hemisphere it is either called a hurricane tropical cyclone or a severe tropical cyclone depending on if it is located within the south atlantic south west indian ocean australian region or the south pacific ocean 22 23 the descriptors for tropical cyclones with wind speeds below 65 kn 120 km h 75 mph vary by tropical cyclone basin and may be further subdivided into categories such as tropical storm cyclonic storm tropical depression or deep depression 20 21 19 naming main articles tropical cyclone naming and history of tropical cyclone naming the practice of using given names to identify tropical cyclones dates back to the late 1800s and early 1900s and gradually superseded the existing system simply naming cyclones based on what they hit 114 115 the system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form that is readily understood and recognized by the public 114 115 the credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the queensland government meteorologist clement wragge who named systems between 1887 and 1907 114 115 this system of naming weather systems fell into disuse for several years after wragge retired until it was revived in the latter part of world war ii for the western pacific 114 115 formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the north and south atlantic eastern central western and southern pacific basins as well as the australian region and indian ocean 115 at present tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts watches and warnings 114 since the systems can last a week or longer and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described 114 names are assigned in order from predetermined lists with one three or ten minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km h 40 mph depending on which basin it originates 19 21 22 standards vary from basin to basin some tropical depressions are named in the western pacific tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of gale force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the southern hemisphere 22 23 the names of significant tropical cyclones in the north atlantic ocean pacific ocean and australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name 19 20 23 tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an identification code consisting of a two digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor them 23 116 related cyclone types see also cyclone extratropical cyclone and subtropical cyclone in addition to tropical cyclones there are two other classes of cyclones within the spectrum of cyclone types these kinds of cyclones known as extratropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones can be stages a tropical cyclone passes through during its formation or dissipation 117 an extratropical cyclone is a storm that derives energy from horizontal temperature differences which are typical in higher latitudes a tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses although not as frequently an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm and from there into a tropical cyclone 118 from space extratropical storms have a characteristic comma shaped cloud pattern 119 extratropical cyclones can also be dangerous when their low pressure centers cause powerful winds and high seas 120 a subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone they can form in a wide band of latitudes from the equator to 50 although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane force winds they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm 121 structure eye and center main article eye cyclone the eye and surrounding clouds of hurricane florence seen from the international space station at the center of a mature tropical cyclone air sinks rather than rises for a sufficiently strong storm air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation thereby creating a clear eye weather in the eye is normally calm and free of convective clouds although the sea may be extremely violent 122 the eye is normally circular and is typically 30 65 km 19 40 mi in diameter though eyes as small as 3 km 1 9 mi and as large as 370 km 230 mi have been observed 123 124 the cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the eyewall the eyewall typically expands outward with height resembling an arena football stadium this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the stadium effect 124 the eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found air rises most rapidly clouds reach their highest altitude and precipitation is the heaviest the heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone s eyewall passes over land 122 in a weaker storm the eye may be obscured by the central dense overcast which is the upper level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone 125 the eyewall may vary over time in the form of eyewall replacement cycles particularly in intense tropical cyclones outer rainbands can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and angular momentum when the primary eyewall weakens the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily the outer eyewall eventually replaces the primary one at the end of the cycle at which time the storm may return to its original intensity 126 size size descriptions of tropical cyclones roci diameter type less than 2 degrees latitude very small minor 2 to 3 degrees of latitude small 3 to 6 degrees of latitude medium average normal 6 to 8 degrees of latitude large over 8 degrees of latitude very large 127 though large hurricane size does not imply strength which is based on sustained wind measurements it can mean that more people are exposed to its hazards 128 there are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size the most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind the radius of 34 knot 17 m s 63 km h 39 mph wind i e gale force the radius of outermost closed isobar roci and the radius of vanishing wind 129 130 an additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone s relative vorticity field decreases to 1 10 5 s 1 124 on earth tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes from 100 2 000 km 62 1 243 mi as measured by the radius of vanishing wind they are largest on average in the northwest pacific ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern pacific ocean basin 131 if the radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two degrees of latitude 222 km 138 mi then the cyclone is very small or a midget a radius of 3 6 latitude degrees 333 670 km 207 416 mi is considered average sized very large tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees 888 km 552 mi 127 observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity i e maximum wind speed radius of maximum wind latitude and maximum potential intensity 130 131 typhoon tip is the largest cyclone on record with tropical storm force winds 2 170 km 1 350 mi in diameter the smallest storm on record is tropical storm marco of 2008 which generated tropical storm force winds only 37 km 23 mi in diameter 132 movement the movement of a tropical cyclone i e its track is typically approximated as the sum of two terms steering by the background environmental wind and beta drift 133 some tropical cyclones can move across large distances such as hurricane john the second longest lasting tropical cyclone on record which traveled 13 280 km 8 250 mi the longest track of any northern hemisphere tropical cyclone over its 31 day lifespan in 1994 134 135 136 environmental steering environmental steering is the primary influence on the motion of tropical cyclones 137 it represents the movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions similar to leaves carried along by a stream 138 physically the winds or flow field in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be treated as having two parts the flow associated with the storm itself and the large scale background flow of the environment 137 tropical cyclones can be treated as local maxima of vorticity suspended within the large scale background flow of the environment 139 in this way tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first order as advection of the storm by the local environmental flow 140 this environmental flow is termed the steering flow and is the dominant influence on tropical cyclone motion 137 the strength and direction of the steering flow can be approximated as a vertical integration of the winds blowing horizontally in the cyclone s vicinity weighted by the altitude at which those winds are occurring because winds can vary with height determining the steering flow precisely can be difficult the pressure altitude at which the background winds are most correlated with a tropical cyclone s motion is known as the steering level 139 the motion of stronger tropical cyclones is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a thicker portion of troposphere compared to weaker tropical cyclones whose motion is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a narrower extent of the lower troposphere 141 when wind shear and latent heat release is present tropical cyclones tend to move towards regions where potential vorticity is increasing most quickly 142 climatologically tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east to west trade winds on the equatorial side of the subtropical ridge a persistent high pressure area over the world s subtropical oceans 138 in the tropical north atlantic and northeast pacific oceans the trade winds steer tropical easterly waves westward from the african coast toward the caribbean sea north america and ultimately into the central pacific ocean before the waves dampen out 143 these waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region 144 in contrast in the indian ocean and western pacific in both hemispheres tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the intertropical convergence zone and the monsoon trough 145 other weather systems such as mid latitude troughs and broad monsoon gyres can also influence tropical cyclone motion by modifying the steering flow 141 14...