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emperature has risen by 0 6 degrees celsius over the last decade whereas globally the earth has warmed approximately 0 7 degrees celsius over the last hundred years 10 groundwater relative groundwater travel times in the subsurface this section is an excerpt from groundwater edit groundwater is the water present beneath earth s surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations about 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater 11 a unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water the depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table groundwater is recharged from the surface it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps and can form oases or wetlands groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural municipal and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells the study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology also called groundwater hydrology typically groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers but in the technical sense it can also contain soil moisture permafrost frozen soil immobile water in very low permeability bedrock and deep geothermal or oil formation water groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults it is likely that much of earth s subsurface contains some water which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances under river flow throughout the course of a river the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution flowing through rocks and sediments that underlie the river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone for many rivers in large valleys this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow the hyporheic zone often forms a dynamic interface between surface water and groundwater from aquifers exchanging flow between rivers and aquifers that may be fully charged or depleted this is especially significant in karst areas where pot holes and underground rivers are common 12 artificial sources of usable water this refers to structured systems designed by humans for the collection storage treatment and the convertion of water for human use 13 14 the purpose of this system is to help mitigate the shortage of water especially in regions where there is little to no rainfall or high demand of water 15 there are several artificial sources of fresh water treated wastewater reclaimed water atmospheric water generators 16 17 18 and desalinated seawater other important sources includes rainwater harvesting systems wells and boreholes artificial recharge ponds dams and reservoirs 13 19 20 it is important to consider the economic and environmental side effects of these technologies 21 wastewater reuse this section is an excerpt from reclaimed water edit water reclamation is the process of converting municipal wastewater or sewage and industrial wastewater into water that can be reused for a variety of purposes it is also called wastewater reuse water reuse or water recycling there are many types of reuse it is possible to reuse water in this way in cities or for irrigation in agriculture other types of reuse are environmental reuse industrial reuse and reuse for drinking water whether planned or not reuse may include irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing surface water and groundwater this latter is also known as groundwater recharge reused water also serve various needs in residences such as toilet flushing businesses and industry it is possible to treat wastewater to reach drinking water standards injecting reclaimed water into the water supply distribution system is known as direct potable reuse drinking reclaimed water is not typical 22 reusing treated municipal wastewater for irrigation is a long established practice this is especially so in arid countries reusing wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to remain an alternative water source for human activities this can reduce scarcity it also eases pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies 23 there are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse a combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe meaning free from pathogens the following are some of the typical technologies ozonation ultrafiltration aerobic treatment membrane bioreactor forward osmosis reverse osmosis and advanced oxidation 24 or activated carbon 25 some water demanding activities do not require high grade water in this case wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment desalinated water this section is an excerpt from desalination edit desalination is the artificial process by which salt water generally sea water is converted to fresh water more generally desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance 26 it is possible to desalinate saltwater especially sea water to produce water for human consumption or irrigation producing brine as a by product 27 interest in desalination mostly focuses on cost effective provision of fresh water for human use along with recycled wastewater it is one of the few water resources independent of rainfall 28 as stress on the need for freshwater intensifies globally desalination has become a key part of strategies for global water security according to a 2019 review in science of the total environment around 95 million cubic meters per day of desalinated water is produced worldwide and the demand for desalinated water is expected to grow significantly to help close the global water supply gap research into other options schematic illustration of a proposed approach for capturing moisture above the ocean surface and transporting it to proximal land for improving water security 29 researchers proposed air capture over oceans which would significantly increasing freshwater through the capture of humid air over oceans to address present and especially future water scarcity insecurity 30 29 a 2021 study proposed hypothetical portable solar powered atmospheric water harvesting devices however such off the grid generation may sometimes undermine efforts to develop permanent piped infrastructure among other problems 31 32 33 water uses total renewable freshwater resources of the world in mm year 1 mm is equivalent to 1 l of water per m 2 long term average for the years 1961 1990 resolution is 0 5 longitude x 0 5 latitude equivalent to 55 km x 55 km at the equator computed by the global freshwater model watergap map of water stress and spatial variability of water yield along the delineated near offshore region of 200 km across the world 29 the total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration some human water users have an intermittent need for water for example many farms require large quantities of water in the spring and no water at all in the winter other users have a continuous need for water such as a power plant that requires water for cooling over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed 34 agriculture and other irrigation further information sustainable water and innovative irrigation management this section is an excerpt from irrigation edit irrigation of agricultural fields in andalusia spain irrigation canal on the left irrigation in agriculture is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops landscape plants and lawns irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5 000 years and has been developed by many cultures worldwide irrigation helps to grow crops maintain landscapes and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below average rainfall in addition to these uses irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost 35 suppress weed growth in grain fields and prevent soil consolidation it is also used to cool livestock reduce dust dispose of sewage and support mining operations drainage which involves the removal of surface and sub surface water from a given location is often studied in conjunction with irrigation irrigation and drainage improvements are not necessarily mutually exclusive often both may be required together to assure sustained high level production of crops for a discussion of the role of drainage practices in agriculture 36 several irrigation methods differ in how water is supplied to plants surface irrigation also known as gravity irrigation is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years in sprinkler irrigation water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high pressure water devices micro irrigation is a system that distributes water under low pressure through a piped network and applies it as a small discharge to each plant micro irrigation uses less pressure and water flow than sprinkler irrigation drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone of plants subirrigation has been used in field crops in areas with high water tables for many years it involves artificially raising the water table to moisten the soil below the root zone of plants industries see also industrial water treatment and industrial wastewater treatment it is estimated that 22 of worldwide water is used in industry 37 major industrial users include hydroelectric dams thermoelectric power plants which use water for cooling ore and oil refineries which use water in chemical processes and manufacturing plants which use water as a solvent water withdrawal can be very high for certain industries but consumption is generally much lower than that of agriculture water is used in renewable power generation hydroelectric power derives energy from the force of water flowing downhill driving a turbine connected to a generator this hydroelectricity is a low cost non polluting renewable energy source significantly hydroelectric power can also be used for load following unlike most renewable energy sources which are intermittent ultimately the energy in a hydroelectric power plant is supplied by the sun heat from the sun evaporates water which condenses as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill pumped storage hydroelectric plants also exist which use grid electricity to pump water uphill when demand is low and use the stored water to produce electricity when demand is high 38 thermoelectric power plants using cooling towers have high consumption nearly equal to their withdrawal as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process the withdrawal however is lower than in once through cooling systems 39 water is also used in many large scale industrial processes such as thermoelectric power production oil refining fertilizer production and other chemical plant use and natural gas extraction from shale rock discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution pollution includes discharged solutes and increased water temperature thermal pollution 40 drinking water and domestic use households main articles water supply drinking water and water footprint drinking water it is estimated that 8 of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes 37 these include drinking water bathing cooking toilet flushing cleaning laundry and gardening basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by peter gleick at around 50 liters per person per day excluding water for gardens drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm such water is commonly called potable water in most developed countries the water supplied to domestic commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation 41 844 million people still lacked even a basic drinking water service in 2017 42 3 of those 159 million people worldwide drink water directly from surface water sources such as lakes and streams 42 3 one in eight people in the world do not have access to safe water 43 44 unsafe drinking water leads to 1 2 million deaths per year according to the world bank 45 challenges and threats water scarcity this section is an excerpt from water scarcity edit water scarcity closely related to water stress or water crisis is the lack of any local or economically viably transportable sources of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand in a region there are two types of water scarcity one is physical the other is economic water scarcity 46 560 physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands this includes water needed for ecosystems to function regions with a desert climate often face physical water scarcity 47 central asia west asia north africa and most of australia are examples of arid areas economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw usable water from rivers aquifers and other water sources it also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand 46 560 many people in sub saharan africa are living with economic water scarcity 48 11 water pollution polluted water this section is an excerpt from water pollution edit water pollution or aquatic pollution is the contamination of water bodies which has a negative impact on how they can be used 49 6 it is usually caused by human activities water bodies include lakes rivers oceans aquifers reservoirs and groundwater water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies contaminants can come from one of four main sources these are sewage discharges industrial activities agricultural activities and urban runoff including stormwater 50 water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater this form of pollution can lead to many problems one is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems another is spreading water borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation 51 water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the water resource water conflict this section is an excerpt from water conflict edit ethiopia s move to fill the gerd dam s reservoir could reduce nile flows by as much as 25 and devastate egyptian farmlands 52 water conflict typically refers to violence or disputes associated with access to or control of water resources or the use of water or water systems as weapons or casualties of conflicts the term water war is colloquially used in media for some disputes over water and often is more limited to describing a conflict between countries states or groups over the right...