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om persia arabia and india beginning around the millennium some settled there and islam became influential in island culture among all ethnicities the long history of arab rule dated to 1698 and zanzibar was an overseas territory of oman until it achieved independence in 1858 under its own sultanate 6 in 1890 during ali ibn sa id s reign zanzibar became a british protectorate after the heligoland zanzibar treaty separated british and german territory in central africa during the scramble for africa 7 although never under direct british rule it was considered part of the british empire 8 by 1964 the country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by sultan jamshid bin abdullah 9 zanzibar had a population of around 230 000 africans some of whom claimed persian ancestry and were known locally as shirazis 10 and also contained significant minorities of 50 000 arabs and 20 000 south asians who had long been prominent in business and trade 10 the various ethnic groups were becoming mixed by intermariage and the distinctions among them had blurred 9 according to one historian an important reason for the general support for sultan jamshid was his family s ethnic diversity 9 but the island s arab inhabitants were the major landowners and were generally wealthier than the africans 11 they enjoyed access to higher quality social services such as health and education than africans apart from that british authority considered zanzibar as an arab country and always held a position of supporting the arab minority to stay in power 12 with the approach of the withdrawal of the british in the early 1960s the major political parties organised largely along ethnic lines with arabs dominating the zanzibar nationalist party znp and africans the afro shirazi party asp 9 the znp looked towards egypt as its model which caused some tensions with the british officials on the islands on the other hand for centuries zanzibar had been dominated by its arab ruling class and the colonial office could not imagine a zanzibar ruled by black africans 13 in january 1961 as part of the process of british withdrawal from the islands the island s authorities drew up constituencies and held democratic elections 11 the asp and the znp each won 11 of the available 22 seats in zanzibar s parliament 9 so further elections were held in june with the number of seats increased to 23 the znp entered into a coalition with the zanzibar and pemba people s party zppp and this time took 13 seats while the asp despite receiving the most votes won 10 9 electoral fraud was suspected by the asp and civil disorder broke out resulting in 68 deaths 9 to maintain control the coalition government banned the more radical opposition parties filled the civil service with its own appointees and politicised the police 11 in 1963 with the number of parliamentary seats increased to 31 another election saw a repeat of the 1961 votes along with bitterly divisive propagandaizing 14 due to the layout of the constituencies which were gerrymandered by the znp the asp led by abeid amani karume won 54 percent of the popular vote but only 13 seats 15 the znp zppp won the rest and set about strengthening its hold on power 11 the umma party formed that year by disaffected radical arab socialist supporters of the znp 16 was banned and all policemen of african mainland origin were dismissed 15 17 this removed a large portion of the only security force on the island and created an angry group of paramilitary trained men with knowledge of police buildings equipment and procedures 18 the new arab dominated government made it clear that in foreign policy the sultanate of zanzibar would be seeking close links with the arab world especially egypt and had no interest in forging relationships with the nations on the african mainland as the black majority wished 19 slavery in zanzibar had been abolished in 1897 but much of the arab elite who dominated the island s politics made little effort to hide their racist views of the black majority as their inferiors a people fit only for slavery 19 in parliament the minister of finance juma aley responded to questions from karume by insultingly saying he need not answer questions from a mere boatman 20 aley said in another speech in parliament that if arabs were over represented in the cabinet it was not because of race but rather it was because the mental abilities of blacks were so abysmally low and the mental abilities of arabs like himself were so high a remark that enraged the black majority 20 memories of centuries of arab slave trading in the past some of the older black people had been slaves in their youth together with the distinctly patronizing view of the arab elite towards the black majority in the present meant that much of the black population of zanzibar had a ferocious hatred of the arabs and viewed the new arab dominated government as illegitimate 19 the government drastically cut spending in schools in areas with high concentrations of black people which heightened tensions 21 the government s budget with its draconian spending cuts in schools in black areas was widely seen as a sign that the arab dominated government was planning to lock the black people in a permanent second class status 21 on 10 december 1963 with the termination of the british protectorate complete independence was achieved with the znp zppp coalition as the government the government requested a defence agreement from the united kingdom asking for a battalion of british troops to be stationed on the island for internal security duties 2 but this request was rejected the uk believed it inappropriate for british troops to be involved in maintenance of law and order so soon after complete independence 2 and in any event many of the cabinet who were seeking closer ties with egypt ruled by the radical anti western nationalist nasser did not want british troops in zanzibar 21 british intelligence reports predicted that a civil disturbance accompanied by increasing communist activity was likely in the near future and that the arrival of british troops might cause the situation to deteriorate further 2 many foreign nationals remained on the island including 130 britons who were direct employees of the zanzibar government 22 in 1959 a charismatic ugandan named john okello arrived in pemba working as a bricklayer in february 1963 he moved to zanzibar 23 working as an official in the zanzibar and pemba paint workers union and as an activist of the asp okello had built a following and almost from the moment when he arrived on zanzibar had been organizing a revolution that he planned to take place shortly after independence 24 revolution edit around 3 00 am on 12 january 1964 600 800 poorly armed mainly african insurgents aided by some of the recently dismissed ex policemen attacked unguja s police stations to seize weapons and then the radio station 1 2 the attackers had no guns being equipped only with spears knives machetes and tire irons but they had the advantage of numbers and surprise 25 the arab police replacements had received almost no training and despite responding with a mobile force were soon overcome 1 26 okello himself led the attack on the ziwani police hq the largest armory on the island 25 several of the rebels were fatally shot but the police were overwhelmed by sheer numbers okello personally attacked a police sentry wrestled his rifle from him and used it to bayonet the policeman to death 25 arming themselves with hundreds of captured automatic rifles submachine guns and bren guns the insurgents took control of strategic buildings in the capital zanzibar town 27 28 at about 7 00 am okello made his first radio broadcast from a local radio station his followers had captured two hours earlier calling upon the africans to rise up and overthrow the imperialists 29 at the time okello referred to himself only as the field marshal there was much speculation on zanzibar about the identity of this mysterious figure leading the revolution who spoke swahili with a thick ugandan acholi accent that was unfamiliar on zanzibar 29 within six hours of the outbreak of hostilities the town s telegraph office and main government buildings were under revolutionary control and the island s only airstrip was captured at 2 18 pm 27 28 in the countryside fighting had erupted between the manga as the rural arabs were called and the africans 30 the manga were armed mainly with hunting rifles and once the arms seized from the police stations reached the rebels in the countryside the manga were doomed 30 it is claimed by an american diplomat don petterson living then in zanzibar that the fiercest resistance was at the malindi police station where under the command of police commissioner j m sullivan a british policeman who stayed on until a local replacement could be hired all of the rebel attacks were repulsed not least because the insurgents tended to retreat whenever they came under fire 30 sullivan did not surrender the malindi station until late in the afternoon and only after running out of ammunition as claimed by sullivan he marched his entire force not one policeman had been killed or wounded down to the stone town wharf to board some boats that took them out to a ship the salama to take them away from zanzibar 31 throughout stone town rebels had looted and destroyed shops and homes owned by arabs and south asians and gang raped numerous arab and south asian women 31 the sultan together with prime minister muhammad shamte hamadi and members of the cabinet fled the island on the royal yacht seyyid khalifa 28 32 the revolutionary government seized the sultan s palace and other property 3 at least 80 people were killed and 200 injured the majority of whom were arabs during the 12 hours of street fighting that followed 3 sixty one american citizens including 16 men staffing a nasa satellite tracking station sought sanctuary in the english club in zanzibar town and four us journalists were detained by the island s new government 28 4 not knowing that okello had given orders to kill no whites the americans living in stone town fled to the english club the point for evacuation 33 those travelling in the car convoy to the english club were shocked to see the battered bodies of arab men lying out on the streets of stone town with their severed penises and testicles shoved into their mouths 34 as part of okello s carefully laid out plans all over the island gangs of africans armed with knives spears and pangas machetes went about systematically killing all the arabs and south asians they could find 35 the american diplomat don petterson described this horror as he watched from his house a gang of african men storm the house of an arab man behead him in public with a panga followed by screams from within his house as his wife and three children were raped and killed followed by the same scene being repeated at the next house of an arab followed by yet another and another 35 after taking control of stone town on the first day the revolutionaries continued to fight the manga for control of the countryside for at least two days afterwards whole families of arabs were massacred after their homes had been stormed 36 according to the official zanzibari history the revolution was planned and headed by the asp leader abeid amani karume 2 but at the time karume was on the african mainland as was the leader of the banned umma party abdulrahman muhammad babu 32 okello in his capacity as the asp youth branch secretary for pemba had sent karume to the mainland to ensure his safety 1 32 okello had arrived in zanzibar from kenya in 1959 9 claiming to have been a field marshal for the kenyan rebels during the mau mau uprising he did not have any military experience 1 he maintained that he heard a voice commanding him as a christian to free the zanzibari people from the muslim arabs but the zanzibaris were predominantly muslim 9 okello led the revolutionaries mainly unemployed members of the afro shirazi youth league on 12 january 2 17 one commentator has speculated that it was probably okello with the youth league who planned the revolution 2 there appear to have been three different plots to overthrow the government led by karume babu and okello but it was okello s plan that was furthest advanced and he struck the blow that brought down the sultan s regime 37 okello was not widely known in zanzibar and the government was more concerned with monitoring the asp and umma rather than a little known and barely literate house painter and minor union official 38 okello was a complete mystery to the world at the time of the revolution mi5 reported to whitehall that he was an ex policeman who fought with the mau mau in kenya and had been trained in cuba in the art of revolutionary violence 39 at a press conference several days later okello angrily denied ever having been to cuba or china he said he was a christian and believed everything can be learned from the bible 40 during the revolution africans committed an orgy of violence against the south asian and arab communities including thousands of women being raped by okello s followers and extensive looting and massacres of arabs all over the island 31 the american diplomat don petterson described the killings of arabs by the african majority as an act of genocide 41 petterson wrote genocide was not a term that was as much in vogue then as it came to be later but it is fair to say that in parts of zanzibar the killing of arabs was genocide pure and simple 41 okello frequently took to the radio to urge his followers in thunderous old testament language to kill as many arabs as possible with the maximum of brutality 42 as a pan african nationalist who made his followers sing god bless africa whenever he marched through the streets okello appealed to the black majority but as a militant christian who claimed to hear the voice of god in his head okello had lesser appeal to the island s population that was 95 per cent muslim 42 aftermath edit main article massacre of arabs during the zanzibar revolution the bodies of arabs killed in the post revolution violence as photographed by the africa addio film crew in 1964 paper shows photos of ex government officials defaced after the revolution a revolutionary council was established by the asp and umma parties to act as an interim government with karume heading the council as president and babu serving as the minister of external affairs 32 the country was renamed the people s republic of zanzibar and pemba 1 the new government s first acts were to permanently banish the sultan and to ban the znp and zppp 3 seeking to distance himself from the volatile okello karume quietly sidelined him from the political scene although allowing him to retain his self bestowed title of field marshal 1 32 but okello s revolutionaries soon began reprisals against the arab and asian population of unguja carrying out beatings rapes murders and attack...